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EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 


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EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE 
OF  PAUL 


A    STUDY    OF    DEVELOPMENT 
IN    PAUL'S    CAREER 


BY 
A.  T.  ROBERTSON,  A.M.,  D.D. 

PROFESSOR  IN  THE   SOUTHERN  BAPTIST  THEOLOGICAL  SEMINARY,  LOUISVILLE, 

KT.;   AUTHOR  OF  "EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  JESUS,"  "  SHORT  GRAMMAR 

OF  THE  GREEK  NEW  TESTAMENT,"  "  STUDENT'S  CHRONO- 

IX>GICAL  NEW  TESTAMENT,"   ETC. 


'EfjLol  yhp  rh  ^riv  XP"^"^^^ — Phil.  1 :  21 


CHARLES    SCRIBNER^S    SONS 
NEWYORK     :     :      :     :      :      :     190  9 


Re 


Copyright,  1909 
By  Charles  Scribner's  Sons 


Published  April,  1900 


im{ 


TO  THE  MEMORY  OF 
JOHN  D.  ROBERTSON 

BROTHER  BELOVED  AND 
SERVANT  OF  CHRIST 


PREFACE 

Tee  generous  reception  accorded  "  Epochs  in  the  Life 
of  Jesus"  on  both  sides  of  the  water  has  emboldened 
me,  in  response  to  many  requests,  to  publish  a  com- 
panion volume  on  Paul.  Here  also  detailed  critical 
discussions  will  be  subordinated  to  the  positive  inter- 
pretation of  the  story.  The  books  are  legion  where 
one  can  find  in  English  and  German  all  sides  of  nearly 
every  point  of  criticism  in  the  lives  of  both  Jesus  and 
Paul.  Critical  discussion  is  invaluable,  but  that  is  not 
the  service  attempted  here.  After  all,  criticism  is  only 
a  means  to  an  end.  The  aim  of  the  present  work  is 
rather  to  give  as  the  result  of  criticism  a  constructive 
picture  of  Paul  and  his  work  as  set  forth  in  the  Acts 
and  Paul's  own  Epistles. 

I  have  faced  the  manifold  problems  of  criticism 
which  meet  one  at  every  turn  in  such  a  study,  and 
have  formed  my  own  judgment  where  the  evidence 
justified  such  a  conclusion.  I  am  still  a  learner  about 
Paul  and  still  in  the  dark  on  many  points.  But  enough 
is  known  (reasonably  clear,  I  think,  to  one  who  is  open 
to  historical  evidence)  to  enable  one  to  project  a  vivid 
and  true  outline  of  the  life  of  Paul.  The  main  outline 
is  all  that  is  here  attempted.  Questions  of  geography 
and  general  history  are  touched  upon  only  incidentally. 


viii  PREFACE 

Paul  wrought  so  widely  and  wrote  so  much  that  it  is 
well-nigh  impossible  to  compass  it  all  from  every  point 
of  view  in  one  volume  of  moderate  size.  The  great 
events  in  Paul's  career  are  just  the  ones  which  it  is  most 
important  to  seize  upon  and  which  are  often  missed. 
If  one  does  this  well,  he  will  have  less  trouble  in  filling 
in  the  details.  Sometimes  one  cannot  see  the  wood 
for  the  trees. 

The  task  is  complicated  further  by  the  fact  that  Paul 
has  so  many  sides.  He  cannot  be  understood  unless 
all  sides  of  his  life  are  brought  up  adequately  and  to- 
gether. His  own  environment,  his  intellectual  and 
spiritual  development,  his  relation  to  Jesus,  his  out- 
ward activities,  his  literary  remains,  must  all  be  kept 
in  mind.  The  Epistles  furnish  rich  personal  material 
and  illustrate  the  growth  of  PauFs  theology.  The 
formal  exposition  of  the  Epistles  and  of  his  theology  is 
not  attempted.  The  interest  is  centred  in  Paul  him- 
self. But  the  orderly  and  progressive  study  of  his  life 
in  its  main  points  helps  one  to  solve  the  riddle  of  Paul, 
as  some  scholars  make  him. 

Paul  is  so  masterful  as  to  be  beyond  praise.  Some, 
indeed,  go  to  the  point  of  making  him  the  real  author 
of  modem  Christianity  and  the  perverter  of  the  original 
Christianity  of  Jesus.  How  far  short  that  view  falls  of 
the  truth  the  present  volume  will  endeavor  to  show. 

Nearly  twenty  years  ago  I  first  read  Dr.  James 
Stalker's  "  Life  of  St.  Paul."  This  powerful  little  book 
has  left  a  deep  mark  upon  my  conception  of  Paul. 


PREFACE  ix 

In  common  with  the  whole  world  I  am  debtor  to 
Sir  W.  M.  Ramsay,  Litt.  D.,  of  Aberdeen,  for  fresh 
light  on  Paul.  It  is  a  pleasure  to  acknowledge  this 
obligation  here.  I  cannot  make  detailed  acknowledg- 
ment of  my  debt  to  the  many  books  on  Paul.  The 
bibliography  will  show  the  way  for  those  who  wish  to 
go  further  in  this  great  subject.  In  the  nature  of  the 
case  the  specific  references  to  the  literature  must  be 
few.  Conybeare  and  Howson's  "  Life  and  Epistles  of 
St.  Paul"  is  still  the  classic  on  the  subject. 

For  twenty-one  years  now  I  have  been  a  teacher  of 
Paul's  life  and  Epistles.  Each  year  this  chief  Apostle 
fascinates  me  more  and  more.  He  richly  deserves  the 
power  that  he  still  holds  over  modem  men  in  spite  of 
antique  modes  of  thought.  His  mighty  heart  grappled 
with  the  new  fresh  problems  of  Christianity  as  it  first 
fought  its  way  into  the  hearts  and  lives  of  men  in  the 
Roman  world.  Because  his  trained  and  gifted  intellect 
met  the  issues  of  his  day  p,s  a  missionary  statesman,  a 
philosophical  theologian,  an  intensely  practical  preacher, 
he  is  an  unfailing  source  of  light  and  leading  for  men 
of  force  to-day. 

I  shall  not  undertake  to  justify  my  use  of  the  Acts 
and  all  of  Paul's  thirteen  Epistles  as  reliable  sources  of 
information.  I  am  fully  aware  of  the  fact  that  some 
critics  credit  none  of  these  books  with  real  historical 
value.  Critics  vary  all  the  way  from  the  absurd  posi- 
tion of  Van  Manen  to  the  acceptance  of  them  all.  I 
have  satisfied  myself  that  even  the  Pastoral  Epistles 


X  PREFACE 

are  justly  credited  to  the  Pauline  authorship.  If  one 
waited  till  all  critics  agreed  about  all  points  of  dispute 
in  Paul's  career  before  he  wrote  his  own  convictions, 
the  pen  would  drop  never  to  be  taken  up  again.  But 
it  is  only  just  to  say  that  the  tendency  on  the  whole  is 
steadily  to  increased  confidence  in  Luke  as  an  historian 
and  to  acceptance  of  all  of  Paul's  Epistles  as  genuine. 
I  do  not  claim  that  this  volume  represents  all  modem 
scholarship.  It  is  my  own  interpretation  of  Paul  after 
prolonged  study  of  what  others  have  had  to  say.  I 
Have  come  back  to  Luke  and  Paul  to  hear  what  they 
have  to  tell  about  the  young  Jew  who  turned  about 
face  and  turned  the  world  to  Christ. 

I  wish  to  acknowledge  the  kindness  of  Rev.  P.  V. 
Bomar,  of  Marion,  Ala.,  for  help  in  the  making  of  the 
indexes. 

A.  T.  Robertson. 

Louisville,  Ky. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

CHAPTEB  fAOa 

I.    Saul  the  Pharisaic  Student 1 

II.    Saul  the  Persecuting  Rabbi 25 

III.  Saul's  Vision  op  Jesus 39 

IV.  Saul  Learning  Christianity 67 

V.    Saul  Finds  His  Work 93 

VI.    Paul  the  Missionary  Leader 103 

VII.    Paul's  Doctrinal  Crisis 121 

VIII.    Paul  Answers  the  Cry  op  Europe 139 

IX.    Paul  the  Teacher  op  the  Churches  ....  173 

X.    Paul  at  Bay    . 220 

XI.    Paul  Free  Again 290 

XII.    Paul  Faces  Death 303 

Bibliography : 321 

Index  to  Subjects 329 

Index  to  New  Testament  Passages    ....  333 


EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

CHAPTER  I 
SAUL  THE  PHARISAIC  STUDENT 

"And  I  advanced  in  the  Jews'  religion  beyond  many 
of  mine  own  age  among  my  countrymen."  (Gal.  1 :  14). 

1.  A  Word  of  ApjyrecieUion. — Saul  of  Tarsus  was  a 
man  of  such  vehemence  and  power  that  he  was  head 
in  whatever  circle  he  moved,  whether  as  Saul  the  perse- 
cuting Pharisee,  or  Paul  the  laboring  missionary.  If 
he  was  chief  of  sinners,  he  became  chief  of  saints.  If 
he  was  the  man  of  action  whiriing  over  the  Roman 
Empire,  he  was  doing  it  with  constructive  statesman- 
ship with  no  less  a  purpose  than  to  bring  the  Roman 
Empire  to  the  feet  of  Christ.  He  was  the  very  type  of 
missionary  statesman*  demanded  to-day  in  China, 
Japan,  India,  Africa,  Turkey.  It  is  a  curious  turn  of 
the  wheel  of  history  that  the  very  scenes  of  Paul's  strug- 
gles and  triumphs  for  Christ  are  now  the  hardest  spots 
on  earth  to  reach  with  the  message  of  the  Cross.  We 
need  a  new  Paul  for  the  new  situation. 

Paul  was  no  less  a  man  of  thought  than  a  man  of 

»  Cf .  Lock,  "  St.  Paul  the  Master  Builder,"  pp.  38-67;  Sir  W.  M. 
Ramsay,  "Pauline  and  Other  Studies,"  pp.  49-100. 

1 


2  . , V     .  .'  EPPCHS.IN  :i'HE  'LIFE  OF  PAUL 

action.  He  loved  his  books  and  missed  them  when 
without  them  (II  Tim.  4  :  13).  He  was  the  busiest  of 
men,  but  he  kept  up  his  habits  of  study  to  the  shame  of 
every  city  pastor  (for  Paul  was  a  preacher  in  the  great 
cities  of  the  world)  who  lets  his  books  go  unused  even 
at  the  call  of  pastoral  work.  He  solved  the  problem 
for  himself  as  every  minister  must  do.  I  agree  with 
Sir  W.  M.  Ramsay*  that  Paul  was  a  real  philosopher, 
perhaps  not  in  the  technical  sense  of  the  term,  though 
he  knew  how  to  hold  his  own  with  the  Epicurean  and 
the  Stoic  philosophers  (Acts  17  :  18  ff.).  But  he  pos- 
sessed a  higher  and  nobler  world  view  than  those  op- 
portunists in  philosophy.  Paul  knew  how  to  think  and 
had  such  passion  of  soul  and  keenness  of  intellect  that 
he  still  challenges  the  respect  of  the  greatest  minds  of 
the  modem  world.  He  knew  the  technical  terms  of 
the  Jewish  rabbi  and  the  Greek  philosopher  (Gnostic 
and  Agnostic),  but  he  was  able  to  drop  mere  abstract 
verbiage  and  deal  with  the  heart  of  things  in  words 
that  bum  into  the  very  conscience  of  men.  Certainly 
Paul  had  a  real  philosophy  of  history^  and  a  definite 
programme  for  the  redemption  of  the  empire  as  well 
as  the  salvation  of  individuals. 

But  it  is  as  the  exponent  of  Christ  that  Paul  com- 
mands chief  attention.  This  matter  will  call  for  fuller 
treatment  further  on,  but  a  word  is  needed  here.  He 
claimed  a  place  on  a  level  with  the  very  chiefest  Apos- 
tles (II  Cor.  12 :  11),  when  that  place  was  denied  him 

»  "Cities  of  St.  Paul,"  p.  4.  >  Ibid.,  p.  10  f. 


SAUL  THE  PHARISAIC  STUDENT  3 

by  the  Judaizers.  Indeed,  he  is  the  real  primate  among 
the  Apostles  (not  Peter),  though  not  one  of  the  Twelve. 
He  rebuked  Peter,  not  Peter  Paul.  So  powerful  is 
Paul's  conception  of  Christ  that  it  has  dominated 
Christian  theology.  It  is  a  pertinent  inquiry  whether 
Paul  accurately  grasped  the  truth  about  Jesus  when 
he  probably  did  not  know  him  face  to  face  in  the  flesh, 
for  in  II  Cor.  5 :  16  he  does  not  imply  ("even  though 
we  have  known  Christ  after  the  flesh,  yet  now  know  we 
him  no  more")  that  he  had  ever  seen  Jesus  before  his 
death.  He  had  even  looked  upon  Christ  from  the 
Jewish  or  fleshly  standpoint.  The  inquiry  about  Paul 
is  greatly  important,  for,  if  Paul  went  astray,  he  has 
led  the  world  after  him.  Augustine  and  Calvin, 
Pelagius  and  Arminius,  Origen  and  Clement,  all  drink 
from  the  fountain  of  Paul's  theology.  We  are  indeed 
recovering  the  Johannine  view  of  Christ,  the  Petrine 
and  the  Jacobean,  but  after  all  they  do  not  radically 
differ  from  Paul's  conception,  though  each  gives  an 
interesting  personal  touch.  In  simple  truth,  it  is 
idle  to  hope  to  get  back  to  Christ  except  through 
the  medium  of  the  first  interpreters  of  Jesus  who  told 
their  wonderful  story.  Paul's  story  is  not  the  first  in 
order  of  time,  but  it  is  first  in  order  of  apologetic  inter- 
est, and  apologetics  is  still  worth  the  while  of  every 
intelligent  Christian.  We  strike  terra  firma  in  Paul, 
begging  Van  Manen's  pardon.  Taking  one's  stand 
by  Paul,  one  can  work  his  way  more  securely  through 
the  mazes  of  Johannine  and  Synoptic  criticism  to  the 


4  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

truth  as  it  is  in  Jesus.  He  will  at  last  come  to  see  that 
Paul  and  the  Gospels  give  us  the  same  Christ  with 
just  the  differences  in  detail  that  one  had  a  right  to 
expect. 

Passing  by  Jesus  himself,  Paul  stands  forever  the  fore- 
most representative  of  Christ,  the  ablest  exponent  of 
Christianity,  its  most  constructive  genius,  its  dominant 
spirit  from  the  merely  human  side,  its  most  fearless 
champion,  its  most  illustrious  and  influential  mission- 
ary, preacher,  teacher,  and  its  most  distinguished 
martyr.  He  heard  things  in  the  third  heaven  not 
lawful  to  utter  (II  Cor.  12 : 4),  but  he  felt  himself  a 
poor  earthen  vessel  after  all  (II  Cor.  4:7).  He  sought 
to  commend  himself  in  the  sight  of  God  to  every  man's 
conscience,  for  he  had  seen  the  light  of  the  gospel  of 
the  glory  of  Christ  and  was  the  servant  of  all  for  Jesus* 
sake  (II  Cor.  4 : 3  ff.). 

We  have  a  clear  picture  of  Paul  in  the  Acts.  It  is 
a  legend  that  Luke  was  a  painter  and  left  a  portrait  of 
Paul.  He  was  obviously  a  master  in  word  painting, 
though  we  have  no  painting  in  oil.  We  may  pass  by 
as  worthless  the  legend  that  Paul  was  a  hunchback, 
though  his  personal  appearance  probably  was  not  re- 
markably prepossessing,  since  his  enemies  ridiculed 
him  on  that  score  (II  Cor.  10 :  10).  There  is  an  ad- 
vantage in  a  commanding  personality  provided  undue 
expectations  are  not  excited  which  cannot  be  fulfilled. 
Paul  in  action  was  impressive  enough  as  when  he, 
"  filled  with  the  Holy  Spirit,  fastened  his  eyes  on  "  Ely- 


SAUL  THE  PHARISAIC  STUDENT  5 

mas  the  sorcerer  (Acts  13:9)  and  exclaimed  "Thou  son 
of  the  devil,  thou  enemy  of  all  righteousness,  wilt  thou 
not  cease  to  pervert  the  right  ways  of  the  Lord  ?"  But 
his  Judaizing  adversaries  belittled  his  speech  as  of  no 
account  (II  Cor.  10  :  10)  because,  forsooth,  he  reasoned 
in  possibly  a  conversational  manner.  Some,  indeed, 
much  preferred  the  more  ornate  oratory  of  ApoUos,  who 
"powerfully  confuted  the  Jews"at  Corinth  (Acts  18  :  28). 
But  he  did  have  an  infirmity  "a  stake  in  the  flesh,  a 
messenger  of  Satan"  (II  Cor.  12  :  7),  which  kept  him 
humble  and  reminded  him  again  of  the  earthen  vessel 
which  carried  the  gospel  treasure.  If  weak  eyes  was 
this  infirmity,  he  had  loving  friends  who  would  have 
plucked  out  their  own  if  it  would  have  done  him  any 
good  (Gal.  4  :  15).  But  one  cannot  doubt  that  all  human 
frailties  were  forgotten  when  Paul  poured  out  his 
very  soul  in  passionate  speech  and  stirred  men  to 
heroic  endeavor.  He  could  change  his  tone  and  strike 
the  deeper  note  of  pathos  himself  (Gal.  4 :  20),  for  he 
was  a  man  of  the  strongest  emotion.  He  could  chal- 
lenge men  to  duty  by  his  very  tears  (Acts  20 :  19)  as 
well  as  by  his  independent  self-reliance. 

One  could  not  well  plunge  into  the  life  of  "Paul  with- 
out this  much  of  panegyric,  certainly  not  one  who  has 
felt  that  "  charm  of  Paul "  of  which  Ramsay*  so  winning- 
ly  writes.  The  richness  of  his  nature  will  appear  in 
ample  fulness  as  we  proceed.  If  he  could  go  up  to 
the  third  heaven  and  bring  down  unutterable  glories, 
»  "Pauline  and  Other  Studies,"  pp.  27-45. 


6  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

he  could  spend  a  day  and  a  night  in  the  deep  (II  Cor. 
11  :  25).  He  knew  human  and  inhuman  nature.  He 
had  loyal  friends,  but  he  felt  to  the  quick  the  treachery 
of  false  brethren,  the  ostracism  of  his  own  race,  the 
jealousy  of  some  preachers  of  the  Gospel  (Phil.  1 :  15) 
far  more  than  he  did  the  open  hostility  of  a  Roman 
emperor  like  Nero. 

2.  Said's  Ancestry. — Saul  loved  his  people  with  in- 
tense patriotism.  Few  things  gave  him  keener  anguish 
of  heart  than  the  refusal  of  his  Jewish  brethren,  his 
kinsmen  according  to  the  flesh,  to  take  Jesus  as  the 
Messiah  of  promise  (Rom.  9 : 2  f.).  He  was  almost 
ready  to  be  cut  off  from  Christ  himself  if  that  would  win 
them.  He  had  once  boasted,  as  other  Jews  did,  of 
descent  from  Abraham  (II  Cor.  11 :  22).  He  had  felt 
the  proud  scorn  of  the  Gentiles  which  animated  the 
strict  Jews.  Indeed,  he  was  a  Hebrew  of  the  Hebrews 
and  set  much  store  by  the  stock  of  Israel.  His  blood 
went  back  to  the  tribe  of  Benjamin  (Phil.  3  :  5)  whose 
glory  was  another  Saul,  the  first  king  of  the  Hebrew 
people.  He  probably  once  took  a  keen  interest  in  the 
"endless  genealogies"  (I  Tim.  1 : 4)  and  family  trees 
of  the  Jews  of  his  time.  He  knew  what  pride  of  race 
was,  the  heritage  of  a  long  and  noble  ancestry  that 
reached  far  back  into  the  distant  centuries.  The 
Jew  had  enough  in  his  history  to  give  him  some  right 
to  be  proud.  His  was  the  chosen  people  "whose  is 
the  adoption,  and  the  glory,  and  the  covenants,  and 
the  giving  of  the  law,  and  the  service  of  God,  and  the 


SAUL  THE  PHARISAIC  STUDENT  7 

promises;  whose  are  the  fathers"  (Rom.  9:4  f.).  It 
mattered  little  with  a  story  like  that  if  the  hated  Roman 
yoke  was  upon  the  neck  of  the  Jews.  The  day  of 
the  Roman  would  pass  as  had  that  of  the  Seleucid 
kings,  the  Ptolemies,  Alexander  the  Great,  the  Persian, 
the  Babylonian,  the  Assyrian,  the  Hittite,  the  Egyp- 
tian. Kingdoms  came  and  went,  but  the  Jew  remained, 
proud,  isolated,  defiant,  conscious  that  he  was  to 
fulfil  a  strange  Messianic  mission  in  the  world.  True, 
the  Messianic  hope  was  trailing  now  in  the  dust  of 
a  deliverer  from  Rome  who  would  establish  a  Jewish 
empire  in  Jerusalem,  yet  it  was  to  come  with  great  es- 
chatological  features.  But  to  make  the  whole  world 
Jewish  was  honor  enough  for  the  human  race.  All  this 
and  more  ran  in  the  blood  of  Saul's  ancestors. 

3.  His  Family, — One  can  draw  a  closer  picture  yet  of 
the  home  in  Tarsus  into  which  Saul  was  born,  though 
many  details  are  sadly  wanting.  We  do  not  know 
what  was  the  name  of  either  his  father  or  mother. 
And  yet  the  picture  is  not  wholly  blank.  We  know 
that  his  father  was  a  strict  Jew,  for  his  son  was  "in- 
structed according  to  the  strict  manner  of  the  law  of 
our  fathers  "  (Acts  22  :  3).  He  was  not  merely  a  Phari- 
see himself  but  the  son  of  a  Pharisee  (Acts  23 : 6) .  Hence 
we  know  that,  though  his  father  lived  in  Tarsus  when 
Saul  was  bom  (22  :  3),  he  was  not  a  Hellenizer.  His 
father  was  indeed  a  Hellenist  and  lived  in  one  of  the 
great  Greek  cities  of  the  world,  but  he  was  loyal  to  the 
traditions  of  Palestine  and  was  at  heart  a  real  Jew, 


8  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

though  actually  one  of  the  Dispersion.  One  other 
detail  is  certainly  known  about  SauFs  father.  He  was 
a  Roman  citizen.  The  time  came  when  Paul  would 
take  great  pleasure  in  saying:  "But  I  am  a  Roman 
born"  (Acts  22:28).  Whether  his  father  was  also 
Roman  bom  or  was  made  a  Roman  citizen  for  some 
deed  of  valor  or  for  money,  as  was  true  of  Claudius 
Lysias  (Acts  22  :  28),  is  not  known,  or  at  least  was  not 
known  till  recently.  Ramsay*  has  shown  that  there 
had  been  a  body  of  Jews  settled  in  Tarsus  since  171 
B.C.  It  was  only  possible  for  individual  Jews  to  be- 
come Roman  citizens  in  a  Greek  city  like  Tarsus  by 
being  enrolled  in  "  a  Tribe  set  apart  for  them,  in  which 
they  could  control  the  religious  rites  and  identify 
them  with  the  service  of  the  synagogue."^  If  this  is 
true,  and  Ramsay  proves  it,  Saul's  father  was  enrolled 
in  this  City  Tribe  of  Jewish  citizens  in  Tarsus  for 
his  high  standing  in  the  Jewish  community,  unless 
indeed  his  grandfather  had  been  a  citizen  also.  We 
do  not  know  how  long  the  family  had  been  in 
Tarsus.  At  any  rate  Saul's  father  was  a  man  of 
position  in  the  Jewish  community  and  was  able  to 
send  his  son  later  to  Jerusalem  to  school.  He  may 
have  been  a  man  of  some  wealth.  The  fact  that  he 
was  a  tent-maker  and  taught  his  trade  to  his  son  does 
not  prove  anything,  since  Jews  generally  knew  a  trade 
and  taught  it  to  their  sons.    This  custom  stood  Paul 

» "Cities  of  St.  Paul,"  pp.  169  fif. 
*  Ibid.,  p.  176. 


SAUL  THE  PHARISAIC  STUDENT  9 

^  in  good  stead  later.  There  is  every  reason  to  think 
that  Saul  was  proud  of  his  father. 

The  mother  shrinks  still  further  into  the  background 
except  that  we  know  she  must  have  been  a  woman  of 
force  to  have  reared  such  a  son.  We  catch  a  faint 
glimpse  of  her  also  when  Paul  says:  "I  thank  God, 
whom  I  serve  from  my  forefathers"  (II  Tim.  1:3). 
She  is  in  that  pious  line.  That  is  the  noblest  heritage 
of  all.  In  the  mention  of  Timothy's  mother,  Eunice, 
and  grandmother,  Lois  (1:5),  it  is  not  difficult  to  catch 
the  reflection  of  Saul's  own  fireside.  When  Paul  re- 
minds Timothy  of  whom  he  had  learned  the  Holy 
Scriptures  even  from  a  babe  (3  :  14  f.)  he  was  echoing 
his  own  experience  in  the  home  in  Tarsus.  This  Jew- 
ish matron  must  not  be  overlooked  when  we  study  the 
influences  that  moulded  Saul.  She  made  the  home 
where  he  grew  and  whose  stamp  he  always  bore. 

When  we  ask  for  the  other  members  of  that  family 
group  we  can  only  bring  up  the  picture  of  a  sister 
(Rachel,  a  later  story  calls  her)  whose  son  did  Paul  such 
a  good  turn  in  Jerusalem  in  a  time  of  storm  (Acts 
23 :  16).  This  nephew  was  worthy  of  his  uncle,  and 
that  is  enough  to  say  for  his  shrewdness  and  courage. 
There  may  have  been  other  sisters  and  even  brothers. 
We  simply  do  not  know.  The  curtain  refuses  to  rise 
on  this  point.  But  we  have  caught  some  conception 
of  the  home  in  the  city  of  which  Saul  was  proud. 

4.  The  Date  of  Saul's  Birth.— The  ancients  did  not 
have  the  same  concern  for  minute  chronology  that 


10  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

modern  men  show.  Luke  (Luke  3:1  f.)  does  exhibit 
an  historian's  interest  in  the  time  when  John  the  Bap- 
tist began  his  ministry.  He  seeks  to  locate  the  event 
by  the  names  of  the  rulers  of  the  time.  In  the  Acts, 
likewise,  there  is  occasional  allusion  to  men  and  events 
that  lie  outside  of  the  Apostolic  story.  One  is  grateful 
to  Ramsay  again  for  the  vindication  of  Luke's  trust- 
worthiness as  a  historian.^  But  it  is  to  be  borne  in 
mind  that  Luke  does  not  profess  to  give  the  life  of 
Paul.  He  takes  up  Saul,  who  is  already  a  young  man 
(Acts  7  :  58),  where  he  touches  the  story  of  Christianity 
and  follows  him  with  more  or  less  fulness  to  Rome 
and  there  drops  the  narrative.  There  are  no  clear 
indications  in  Paul's  Epistles,  though  hints  are  dropped 
here  and  there.  He  is  Paul  the  aged  when  he  writes 
to  Philemon  (verse  9).  Unfortunately  there  is  no  ab- 
solutely certain  date  in  Paul's  entire  career.  Even  the 
two  foci  (the  coming  of  Saul  to  Antioch  about  the  time 
of  the  death  of  Herod  Agrippa  I  and  the  famine,  the 
change  of  Roman  Procurators  at  Caesarea  when  Felix 
is  recalled  and  Festus  succeeds  him)  are  not  fixed 
points  any  longer.  If  we  knew  for  certain  that  the 
one  was  A.D.  44  and  the  other  A.D.  60,  there  would 
be  less  diflSculty  in  arranging  approximately  the  other 
chief  dates  in  Paul's  life.  For  a  discussion  of  the 
matter,   see  Turner's   article,   N.  T.    Chronology^  in 


^  Cf.  "Was  Christ  Bom  at  Bethlehem?" 
^  Cf.  also,  Ramsay's  discussion  of  Pauline  Chronology,  "Pauline 
and  Other  Studies." 


SAUL  THE  PHARISAIC  STUDENT  U 

Hastings'  "D.  B."  We  may,  with  some  hesitation, 
use  these  two  dates  as  a  working  hypothesis  for  the 
division  of  Paul's  life  into  three  parts.  Then  the 
great  missionary  journeys  come  between  A.D.  44  and  60. 
But  even  so,  we  have  no  clear  light  thrown  on  the  length 
of  Paul's  life.  Whether  he  was  put  to  death  in  A.D. 
64  or  68,  he  would  still  be  an  old  man  when  he  wrote 
the  letter  to  Philemon.  If,  as  is  possible,  Saul  was 
thirty  years  old  at  the  time  of  the  stoning  of  Stephen, 
which  would  certainly  be  true  if  he  was  actually  a 
member  of  the  Sanhedrin  (Acts  26  :  10),  we  must  add 
to  this  the  fourteen  years  (II  Cor.  12  :  2)  plus  the  three 
spent  in  Arabia  and  Damascus  (Gal.  1  :  18).  But  these 
two  periods  cannot  be  insisted  on  minutely,  since  pieces 
of  years  might  be  counted  at  the  beginning  and  the  close. 
At  any  rate  one  will  not  be  far  astray  if  he  thinks  of  Saul 
as  five  years  the  junior  of  Jesus.  #  This  would  make 
his  birth  about  A.D.  1.  There  is  no  straining  of  the 
facts  if  we  imagine  the  boy  John  in  the  hill  country  of 
Judea,  the  boy  Jesus  in  Nazareth,  and  the  child  Saul  at 
Tarsus  at  the  same  time.  Each  faced  the  same  world, 
but  from  a  different  point  of  view,  these  boys  who  were 
to  revolutionize  the  world.  John  came  out  of  a  priestly 
atmosphere,  and  when  his  aged  parents  died  took  to 
the  wilderness  as  a  place  for  preparation  for  life's 
problems.  Jesus  lived  on  in  the  humble  Nazareth 
home  doing  the  work  of  a  carpenter  (Mark.  6  :  3)  and 
waiting  for  the  voice  in  the  wilderness  to  call  him  to 
his  destiny. 


12  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

5.  The  Boyhood  of  Said  at  Tarsus.— What  was  the 
boy  at  Tarsus  doing  meanwhile?  UnHke  John,  Saul 
lived  in  a  city.  Unlike  Jesus,  his  home  was  in  one  of 
the  great  Greek  cities  of  the  world.  Nathanael  could 
sneer  at  Nazareth  (John  1 :  46),  but  Paul  could  brook 
no  reproach  on  Tarsus.  He  was  proud  to  hail  from 
"no  mean  city"  (Acts  21 :  39).  How  much  right  Paul 
had  to  civic  pride  in  the  town  of  his  birth  Ramsay* 
has  shown  at  great  length  and  with  brilliant  success. 
Tarsus  was  the  city  of  all  the  world  best  adapted  for 
the  youth  of  the  Apostle  to  the  Gentiles.  In  Tarsus 
was  accomplished  most  perfectly  that  union  between 
east  and  west  that  Alexander  the  Great  attempted 
everywhere.  The  city  remained  Asiatic  in  character 
w^hile  it  appropriated  the  Greek  qualities.  Greek  in- 
fluence, indeed,  dated  back  to  the  Ionian  colonists, 
but  the  Greek  spirit  did  not  obliterate  elements  which 
survived  even  the  work  of  Alexander.  Under  the 
Romans  it  was  a  "free  city"  and  the  Jewish  element 
was  a  positive  force  in  the  life  of  the  community. 
There  was  a  great  university  here  also.  It  would  be 
diflBcult  to  imagine  a  city  of  that  era  more  thoroughly 
cosmopolitan  and  representative  of  life  in  the  empire. 
The  absence  of  intense  hatred  of  the  Jews  would  open 
the  way  for  more  sympathy  on  the  part  of  the  Jews 
toward  the  best  things  in  the  Grseco-Roman  civiliza- 
tion. In  common  with  the  Hellenists  in  general  Saul 
spoke  Greek  in  addition  to  his  Aramaic,  and  seemed 
»  "Cities  of  St.  Paul,"  pp.  85-244. 


SAUL  THE  PHARISAIC  STUDENT  13 

to  find  it  not  inconsistent  with  his  Jewish  scruples 
to  witness  the  public  games  which  he  afterwards  used 
so  effectively  as  illustrations  (I  Cor.  9 :  24  f.).  The 
middle  wall  of  partition  between  Jew  and  Gentile 
did  not  extend  to  every  detail  of  life,  though  in  the  main 
the  atmosphere  of  his  home  in  Tarsus  was  thoroughly 
Jewish,  not  to  say  Pharisaic.  If  he  mingled  to  some 
extent  in  the  life  and  play  of  Gentile  boys  in  Tarsus, 
it  is  not  so  clear  that  he  went  to  the  Gentile  schools. 
It  was  just  here  in  the  matter  of  education  that  the 
Pharisee  would  be  more  particular.  As  a  boy  he 
would  learn  the  Old  Testament  story  from  his  mother 
and  from  the  synagogue  teaching,  which  had  become 
a  great  institution  in  Jewish  life.  Environment  plays 
an  important  part  in  every  human  life.  Heredity 
plus  environment  and  the  curious  personal  equation, 
added  to  the  grace  of  God,  explains  the  wonderful 
creature  called  a  man.  Saul  would  not  have  been 
quite  the  same  man  if  he  had  been  reared  wholly  in 
Alexandria  or  Jerusalem.  Both  of  these  centres  of 
culture  left  their  impress  on  Paul,  as  is  seen  in  the  use  of 
allegory  about  Hagar  and  Sarah  (Gal.  4 :  24)  and  the 
rabbinic  refinement  in  the  use  of  words  (Gal.  3 :  16) 
and  traditional  interpretation  (I  Cor.  10 : 4).  But  it 
is  easy  to  see  that  Saul  of  Tarsus  was  not  cut  out  to 
be  Philo,  nor,  indeed,  Shammai.  Tarsus  left  its  mark 
upon  him  as  a  boy  and  made  possible  the  more  generous 
sympathies  of  his  later  life.  It  is  interesting  to  observe 
how  the  comparatively  few  illustrations  in  his  teaching 


14  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

are  drawn  chiefly  from  city  life.^  It  is  not,  however, 
necessary  to  say  that  he  misused  the  subject  of  graft- 
ing the  wild  olive,  for  he  expressly  explains  that  it  is 
"contrary  to  nature"  (Rom.  11 :  24).  John  and  Jesus 
both  revelled  in  the  use  of  illustrations  from  nature 
with  which  they  were  so  familiar.  From  one  point  of 
view  it  seems  a  pity  for  a  boy  to  have  to  live  in  a  city 
and  miss  the  joy  and  freedom  of  the  country.  But 
Saul  had  some  compensations.  His  life  was  to  be  in 
the  great  cities  of  the  empire,  and  he  had  a  natural 
bond  of  sympathy  with  city  life  and  had  less  to  learn 
in  that  respect.  It  is  clear  that  his  boyhood  was  free 
from  the  enervating  dissipations  of  city  life,  and  so  he 
had  strength  of  constitution  to  endure  the  terrific  strain 
of  missionary  work,  not  to  say  persecution  and  im- 
prisonment. One  may  imagine  that  the  boy  at  Tarsus 
took  some  interest  in  athletics  from  his  fondness  for 
the  figure.  I  Tim.  4  :  7  f .  surely  cannot  be  construed 
as  condemnation  of  bodily  exercise.  He  was  a  self- 
reliant  boy,  if  we  may  judge  from  his  advice  to  Timothy 
(I  Tim.  4  :  12).  What  his  day-dreams  were  we  do 
not  know,  but  so  gifted  a  boy  was  bound  to  feel  a  call 
to  higher  service.  He  doubtless  sympathized  with  the 
desire  of  his  parents  that  he  should  become  a  Jewish 
rabbi,  perhaps  another  Gamaliel.  As  a  Jew,  no  higher 
glory  was  open  to  him  than  this,  since  the  prophetic 
voice  had  ceased  from  Israel  and  the  kingly  sceptre 
was  no  longer  in  Jewish  hands.  The  heel  of  Rome 
^  Cf.  Resker,  "St.  Paul's  Illustrations." 


SAUL  THE  PHARISAIC  STUDENT  15 

was  upon  the  world,  the  Mediterranean  world,  Saul's 
world.  Long  afterwards  he  will  look  back  upon 
God's  plan  in  his  life  and  see  that  God  had  "  separated  " 
him  even  from  his  mother's  womb  (Gal.  1 :  15)  to  make 
a  spiritual  Pharisee  of  him,  a  Separate  for  the  Gen- 
tiles, not  from  the  Gentiles,  charged  with  the  revelation 
of  the  Son  of  God  in  his  very  self.  But  it  will  take 
time  and  a  revolution  in  his  nature  before  he  can 
see  that  foreordination.  None  the  less  we  may  con- 
clude that  the  Tarsian  Jewish  boy  was  instinct  with 
life  and  eager  to  have  a  part  in  the  great  world  that 
surged  all  about  him.  If  he  felt  the  impact  of  his  time, 
he  was  anxious  to  play  his  part  in  his  day.  We  may 
suppose  that  already  his  conscience  was  active  accord- 
ing to  which  he  sought  to  live  free  from  offence  towards 
God  and  men  (Acts  24  :  16).  But  if,  on  the  whole,  the 
life  at  Tarsus  still  remains  obscure  to  us,  it  was  not 
obscure  to  Saul's  later  friends,  for  he  was  a  young  man 
of  prominence  as  his  father  was  a  man  of  position. 
Paul  does  say  that  "from  the  first"  his  friends  in  the 
Sanhedrin  and  others  in  Jerusalem,  had  knowledge  of 
him  (Acts  26  :  5),  but  it  is  not  clear  that  this  knowledge 
went  further  than  his  youth  in  Jerusalem  (verse  4). 
But  from  the  time  of  his  student  days  in  Jerusalem  he 
was  in  the  open  so  far  as  the  Jewish  world  was  concerned. 
It  will  repay  us  to  form  a  mental  picture  of  the  boy 
that  left  Tarsus. 

6.  At  the  Feet  of  Gamaliel— It  was  no  mean  am- 
bition that  Saul's  parents  had  for  him  to  receive  his 


16  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

theological  education  in  Jerusalem.  That  city  was 
the  goal  of  Jews  all  over  the  world.  Here  was  con- 
centrated the  history  of  the  nation.  Every  hill  and 
every  valley  teemed  with  holy  associations.  Saul  had 
learned  the  outlines  of  that  story,  and  he  Avas  coming 
to  his  own  when  he  came  to  the  Holy  City.  He  was 
probably,  according  to  Jewish  custom,  about  thirteen 
when  he  came  to  school  in  Jerusalem,  so  that  he  could 
speak  of  his  being  "brought  up"  there  (Acts  22:3). 
One  cannot  help  thinking  of  the  brief  visit  of  the  boy 
Jesus  to  the  temple  at  the  age  of  twelve.  Each  was 
full  of  zest  in  the  problems  of  his  people  and  his  time. 
Saul  probably  did  not  astonish  his  teachers  by  the 
penetration  of  his  questions  and  his  answers  in  the 
same  measure  that  Jesus  did,  but  one  cannot  doubt 
the  keenness  of  his  interest  in  the  new  world  that  he 
had  now  entered. 

But  much  as  the  city  had  to  offer  of  historic  attraction, 
the  thing  that  stood  out  clearest  in  his  after  life  was  the 
fact  that  he  sat  at  the  feet  of  the  great  teacher  of  his 
time  among  the  Jews  (Acts  22 :  3).  The  temple  had 
its  wonders,  that  glorious  temple  of  Herod  still  un- 
finished. But  the  greatest  thing  in  the  world  is  a 
man.  It  is  a  supreme  moment  in  the  life  of  any  youth 
when  he  comes  under  the  spell  of  a  master  teacher. 
This  grandson  of  Hillel  was  the  glory  of  the  law  and  it 
meant  much  for  Saul  to  come  under  his  influence.  His 
school  (called  the  school  of  Hillel)  was  more  liberal 
in  some  fine  points  than  the  rival  rabbinical  theolog- 


SAUL  THE  PHARISAIC  STUDENT  17 

ical  school  of  Shammai  (contemporary  of  Hillel). 
For  one  thing  Gamaliel  was  willing  to  read  the 
Greek  authors,  and  his  pupil  Paul  will  later  show 
some  knowledge  of  Greek  literature.  To  be  sure, 
Paul  says,  that  he  was  "instructed  according  to  the 
strict  manner  of  the  law  of  our  fathers"  (Acts  22  :  3), 
but  he  explains  this  later  when  he  remarks:  "After 
the  straitest  sect  of  our  religion,  I  lived  a  Pharisee" 
(26  : 5).  He  does  not  say  that  he  was  brought  up  in 
the  more  rigid  of  the  Pharisaic  schools.  From  the 
non-Pharisaic  view,  however,  it  was  strict  enough. 
It  was  a  life  of  complacent  self-satisfaction  to  which 
he  was  reared  (cf.  Rom.  7:7)  in  bondage  to  the  letter 
which  killeth  (II  Cor.  3:6).  One  must  not,  however, 
get  too  extravagant  an  idea  of  GamalieFs  breadth  of 
view  and  sympathy.  It  is  true  that  he  did  protest 
formally  in  the  Sanhedrin  against  the  violence  of  the 
Sadducees  towards  the  Apostles  (Acts  5 :  34).  But 
one  is  slow  to  believe  that  this  action  on  his  part  was 
due  either  to  any  interest  in  Christianity  or  real  con- 
cern for  religious  toleration,  not  to  say  liberty  of  opin- 
ion. When,  later,  Stephen  had  fired  the  Pharisees 
by  his  denunciation  of  mere  ceremonialism  and  in- 
sistence on  the  spiritual  nature  of  worship  (cf.  the  ex- 
perience of  Jesus),  there  is  no  indication  that  Gama- 
liel raised  a  restraining  hand  to  save  him  from  the 
fury  of  his  pupil  Saul,  and  the  Pharisees  in  the  Sanhe- 
drin (Acts  6  :  11  ff. ;  7  :  57  f.).  In  Acts  5  :  35-39  he  does 
warn  the  Sanhedrin  to  beware  lest  they  be  found  fight- 


18  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

ing  against  God,  a  piece  of  advice  not  to  be  pressed 
too  literally,  as  he  did  not  later  use  it  himself.  It  is 
evident  that,  while  only  the  Sadducees  were  enlisted 
in  the  fight  against  the  Apostles  on  the  ground  of  the 
doctrine  of  the  resurrection,  the  Pharisees  were  holding 
aloof,  and  in  this  very  division  lay  the  safety  of  the 
disciples,  a  point  that  Paul  knew  how  to  use  on  a  later 
occasion  (Acts  22  :  9  f.).  But  when  Stephen  stirred  the 
Pharisees  also,  Gamaliel  takes  no  interest  in  the  matter. 
Jesus  did  not  come  under  the  spell  of  the  rabbinism 
of  his  time.  In  the  Nazareth  home  there  was  less  of 
the  oral  tradition  (Midrash)  and  more  of  the  spiritual 
teaching  of  the  Old  Testament  prophets  and  psalms. 
Simeon  and  Anna  breathed  that  atmosphere  also,  as 
did  Zacharias  and  Elizabeth,  as  is  shown  by  the  report 
of  their  words.  It  is  no  reflection  on  theological  edu- 
cation as  such  to  comment  on  this  fact.  From  the 
human  point  of  view  Jesus  was  free  from  this  cere- 
monial perversion  and  had  no  cobwebs  to  brush  aside. 
He  sprang  into  instant  opposition  to  the  traditionalists 
of  his  time.  It  will  not  do  to  say  that  if  Saul  had  not 
gone  to  Gamaliel's  school  of  the  prophets,  he,  too, 
would  have  been  more  open  to  the  New  Way.  Peter 
and  John  were  unschooled,  and  they,  too,  were  slow 
to  learn  Jesus.  There  are  diflSculties  of  ignorance  as 
truly  as  there  are  problems  of  knowledge.  They  are 
not  the  same  in  character,  forsooth,  but  just  as  real  in 
fact.  One  can  see  how  Christianity  gained  by  having 
this  man  of  theological  training,  even  though  much 


SAUL  THE  PHARISAIC  STUDENT  19 

of  his  knowledge  was  rabbinical  rubbish.  The  Talmud 
itself,  though  written  down  much  later  (both  Mishna 
and  Gemara  several  centuries  after  Saul),  yet  gives 
us  a  fair  specimen  of  the  theological  hair-splitting  in- 
dulged in  by  the  grave  and  reverend  doctors  of  the  law 
who  dispensed  wisdom  in  Jerusalem.  Paul  did  have 
much  to  unlearn,  much  that  he  came  to  count  only  as 
"refuse"  (Phil.  3:8),  but  great  blessings  resulted  to 
him  and  to  the  cause  of  Christ.  These  more  than 
made  up  for  the  loss,  and  may  console  any  man  who 
may  have  spent  his  time  at  a  modern  school  of  merely 
rabbinical  methods  and  points  of  view,  provided  he 
gets  over  them. 

For  one  thing,  he  gained  a  thoroughly  trained  mind. 
He  was  all  in  all  the  most  gifted  man  of  his  time,  leav- 
ing out  of  view,  of  course,  Jesus  of  Nazareth.  The  skil- 
ful use  of  question  and  answer  was  not  merely  drill, 
though  drill  in  school  is  not  to  be  despised.  He  learned 
how  to  distinguish  between  things  that  differ  (Phil. 
1:10  marg.),  a  true  mark  of  the  justly  educated  mind. 
His  ambition  led  him  to  surpass  his  fellow  pupils 
(Gal.  1 :  14),  and  the  result  was  that  his  brilliant  intel- 
lect had  received  really  magnificent  trainmg  in  mental 
gymnastics.  Much  that  he  had  learned  was  really 
good  in  itself.  He  won  familiarity  with  the  letter  of 
Scripture,  a  point  about  which  some  brilliant  modem 
scholars  are  gloriously  indifferent.  He  was  to  learn 
the  spirit  of  Scripture-teaching  later,  but  there  was 
some  good  in  the  letter,  provided  it  was  not  allowed 


20  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

to  kill.  He  gained,  likewise,  the  art  of  disputation 
which  stood  him  in  good  stead  on  many  an  important 
occasion  as  on  Mars  Hill,  on  the  steps  of  the  Tower 
of  Antonia,  before  the  Jewish  Sanhedrin,  before  Felix, 
Festus,  xAgrippa,  and  perhaps  Nero  himself  the  first 
time.  Being  well  versed  in  rabbinical  theology, 
when  he  came  to  the  side  of  Christ,  he  knew  how  to 
parry  all  the  points  of  his  old  friends  the  rabbis.  He 
knew  the  strength  and  the  weakness  of  Pharisaism 
and  could  speak  as  an  expert  on  that  point.  Cf.  "Tell 
me,  ye  that  desire  to  be  under  the  law"  (Gal.  4 :  21). 
He  knew  only  too  well  "the  weak  and  beggarly  rudi- 
ments" of  bondage  to  the  ceremonial  law  (Gal.  4 : 9), 
and  his  biting  sarcasm  will  later  sting  his  Jewish  ene- 
mies to  fury.  But  now  he  loved  Pharisaism  and  lived 
it  with  fierce  conviction,  a  Hebrew  of  the  Hebrews. 

What  did  Gamaliel  think  of  his  brilliant  pupil? 
One  would  like  to  have  a  word  from  him.  But  the 
position  of  leadership  to  which  he  will  soon  attain 
shows  that  the  master's  approval  rested  on  Saul. 
Perhaps  the  old  teacher  looked  proudly  on  the  young 
man  from  Tarsus  as  a  possible  successor.  When  Saul 
left  Jerusalem  he  was  to  all  intents  and  purposes  the 
one  young  Jew  in  all  the  world  who  had  most  in  pros- 
pect before  him.  He  had  been  educated  as  a  rabbi 
and  the  career  of  a  rabbi  lay  before  him.  But  that 
was  not  all.  Many  a  young  rabbi  lived  in  comparative 
obscurity.  This  young  rabbi  had  great  friends  at 
Jerusalem  who  could  help  him  to  the  highest  places 


SAUL  THE  PHARISAIC  STUDENT  21 

if  he  proved  worthy.  We  may  imagine  the  joy  of  his 
parents  as  he  returned  home  full  of  honor,  the  hope  of 
Gamaliel  and  the  pride  of  his  home. 

7.  Elements  in  SauVs  Education. — ^These  have  al- 
ready been  touched  upon  in  the  preceding  discussion 
to  a  certain  extent,  but  it  is  well  to  gather  up  the  main 
outlines  here.  In  fact  scholars  are  not  agreed  as  to 
this  matter,  some  insisting  that  the  influences  that 
moulded  him  were  wholly  Jewish,  others  finding  a 
rather  large  Greek  side  to  his  training,  others  even 
would  add  a  positive  Babylonian  influence.  It  is 
not  an  easy  matter  to  keep  the  balance  in  a  matter  of 
this  sort.     But  after  all  the  facts  must  decide. 

To  begin  with,  Paul  shows  in  his  Epistles  a  forceful 
and  commanding  style.  His  Greek  is  not,  indeed,  that 
of  Demosthenes,  and  it  would  have  been  an  anachro- 
nism if  it  had  been.  He  uses  beyond  controversy  the 
Koin^  (KOLvrj)  vernacular,  as  did  other  cultivated  and 
uncultivated  men  of  his  day.  The  papyri  show  all 
gra4es  of  culture  in  the  vernacular  then  as  now.  While 
his  Epistles  exhibit  traits  of  the  merely  personal  letter 
as  in  Philemon,  the  passionate  appeal  of  non-literary 
correspondence,  as  in  I  and  II  Thessalonians,  Gala- 
tians,  II  Corinthians,  yet  in  Romans  and  Ephesians 
there  is  more  literary  style  and  conscious  effort  to 
express  himself  in  accord  with  the  greatness  of  his 
ideas.  Cf.  also  I  Cor.  13  and  15.  He  is  an  educated 
Jew  who  knew  his  Aramaic  (Acts  22  :  2)  and  Hebrew, 
but  who  was  also  at  home  in  the  Greek  of  his  time. 


22  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

The  few  quotations  from  the  Greek  writers  (Acts  17: 
28;  I  Cor.  15:33;  Tit.  1:12)  are  not  from  writers  of 
the  highest  rank,  and  cannot  be  used  as  proof  that 
Paul  was  thoroughly  familiar  with  Homer  and  Plato. 
That  matter  may  be  left  open  to  conjecture.  What  is 
clear  is  that  he  could  hold  the  attention  of  the  cult- 
ured Athenians  so  long  as  he  did  not  offend  them 
by  the  doctrine  of  the  resurrection. 

In  discussing  the  Hellenism  of  Paul  one  must  re- 
member that  he  was  himself  a  Hellenist,  not  a  Pales- 
tinian Jew.  Besides,  the  Hellenism  of  Paul's  day  was 
not  the  Hellenism  of  Aristotle's  time.^  The  later 
Hellenism  and  the  later  Judaism  of  the  Dispersion 
were  not  so  far  apart  as  their  antecedents  had  been. 
"In  the  mind  of  Paul  a  universalized  Hellenism  co- 
alesced with  a  universalized  Hebraism."^  To  be  sure, 
one  must  not  make  a  real  Greek  out  of  Paul.  But  it 
is,  I  believe,  missing  a  part  of  Paul's  nature  to  refuse 
to  see  his  bond  of  contact  with  the  Greek  world  in 
which  he  lived. 

We  know  how  proud  he  was  of  his  Roman  citizenship, 
so  that  the  Roman  side  of  his  training  is  not  to  be  over- 
looked, though  it  was  naturally  slight  as  compared 
with  the  Hebrew  culture.  He  seems  to  have  known 
some  Latin,  as  he  managed  his  own  case  in  the  various 
trials  before  the  Roman  courts. 

'  Ramsay,  "Cities  of  St.  Paul,"  p.  31.  Cf.  Hicks,  "St.  Paul  and 
Hellenism."  Thackeray,  "Relation  of  St.  Paul  to  Contem- 
porary Jewish  Thought." 

2  Ramsay,  "Cities  of  St.  Paul,"  p.  43. 


SAUL  THE  PHARISAIC  STUDENT  23 

But  it  is  quite  within  bounds  to  think  of  Saul's  edu- 
cation as  really  cosmopolitan,  as  much  so,  indeed,  as 
that  of  a  young  Jew  who  was  loyal  to  his  people  could 
well  have  been.  Besides  the  teaching  of  the  rabbis, 
he  probably  read  some  of  the  Jewish  apocalypses  like 
the  Psalms  of  Solomon,  Book  of  Enoch,  Testament  of 
the  Twelve  Patriarchs,  books  which  had  a  vogue  at 
that  time.  Other  books,  like  the  Wisdom  of  Solomon, 
which  reflected  the  Jewish  Alexandrian  Philosophy, 
he  possibly  read  also.  There  is  no  reason  to  think 
that  he  was  too  narrow  a  Pharisee  to  be  open  to  the 
various  means  of  culture  of  his  time.  Fundamentally 
a  rabbi,  he  was  familiar  with  the  apocalyptic  method 
of  teaching  also  (cf.  II  Thess.  2  :  3-10).  But  around 
this  Jewish  learning  there  gathered  a  certain  amount 
of  Greek  and  Roman  culture  which  made  him  a  real 
citizen  of  the  world  and  a  fit  vessel  to  bear  the  Gospel 
to  the  Gentiles  when  Christ  should  lay  his  hand  upon 
him. 

If  .Christianity  only  possessed  one  so  well  equipped 
as  this  young  rabbi!  No  one  of  the  Twelve  Apostles 
was  his  equal  in  mental  gifts  and  culture.  But  he  is 
far  from  any  thought  of  Christ  in  his  home  at  Tarsus. 
Brilliant,  accomplished,  masterful,  ambitious,  he  is 
eager  to  be  in  the  midst  of  the  stirring  events  in  Judea. 
He  appears  in  Jerusalem  again,  possibly  drawn 
thither  by  the  attacks  of  Stephen  on  the  citadel  of 
Pharisaism.  It  is  not  improbable  that  he  measured 
swords  in  debate  with  Stephen  in  the  Cilician  synagogue, 


24  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

where  Saul  would  naturally  go  (Acts  6:9).  But,  if  so, 
he  had  a  new  experience.  He  could  not  stand  against 
this  tornado  of  the  Spirit.  Few  things  annoy  a  man 
of  culture  quite  so  much  as  to  be  overcome  in  public 
discussion  whether  by  ridicule  or  weight  of  argument. 
An  unanswerable  argument  is  a  hard  thing  to  forgive. 
Stephen  was  all  ablaze  with  passion.  Before  him 
Saul's  critical  acumen  and  theological  subtleties  van- 
ished. Saul  was  beaten  and  his  defeat  rankled  within 
him.  Such  in  brief  is  the  picture  that  we  may  form 
of  Saul  and  Stephen  in  Jerusalem. 


CHAPTER  II 

SAUL  THE  PERSECUTING  RABBI 

"I  verily  thought  with  myself  that  I  ought  to  do  many 
things  contrary  to  the  name  of  Jesus  of  Nazareth" 
(Acts  26:9). 

1.  Said's  First  Taste  of  Blood. — ^This  form  of  state- 
ment may  shock  one  a  bit  at  first.  It  suggests  that 
Saul  became  bloodthirsty  in  his  persecution.  That  is 
true.  He  was,  indeed,  a  most  respectable  persecutor, 
but  blood  was  on  his  hands,  and  he  afterwards  recog- 
nized it  with  shame  and  humiliation.  "And  when 
they  were  put  to  death  I  gave  my  vote  against  them" 
(Acts  26  :  10).  "And  I  persecuted  this  way  even  unto 
the  death,  binding  and  delivering  into  prisons  both 
men  and  women"  (Acts  22 :  4).  He  could  never  for- 
give himself  for  this  lapse  from  the  true  moral  standards. 
Paul  was  by  nature  a  gentleman,  and  to  think  that  he 
had  led  even  lovely  women  to  prison  and  death  I  "For 
I  am  the  least  of  the  Apostles,  that  am  not  meet  to  be 
called  an  Apostle  because  I  persecuted  the  church  of 
God"  (I  Cor.  15 :  9).  The  only  consolation  about  it 
all  that  he  could  get  was  that  he  "did  it  ignorantly  in 
unbelief"  (I  Tim.  1:13),  but  he  could  never  think  of 
himself  as  aught  but  the  chief  of  sinners.  In  him  as 
chief,  Jesus  set  forth  "an  ensample  of  them  that  should 

25 


26  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

thereafter  believe  on  him  unto  eternal  life  "  (1  Tim.  1:16). 
If  Christ  could  save  a  sinner  like  Saul,  he  felt  that  no 
one  else  need  despair.  Paul  did  not  spare  himself 
later  by  the  reflection  that  he  thought  that  he  had  done 
his  duty  to  God  in  this  matter.  That  is  the  excuse  of 
every  persecutor.  It  is  just  his  way  of  serving  God, 
to  kill  the  heretics!  Indeed,  the  conscientiousness  of 
Saul  in  the  matter  merely  added  to  his  later  remorse. 

So  we  know  how  Saul  felt  after  he  saw  his  persecu- 
tion in  its  true  light  and  how  he  felt  before  his  con- 
version. When  he  stands  by  Stephen,  keeping  guard 
over  the  garments  of  those  who  had  stripped  themselves 
for  vengeance  on  Stephen  the  traducer  of  the  faith  of 
the  Pharisees,  he  is  full  of  self-complacency.  His  con- 
science gave  him  no  trouble  at  all.  The  sense  of  sin  had 
not  revived  in  him,  and  he  felt  very  much  alive  (Rom. 
7:9).  He  seemed  to  have  abundant  justification  for  this 
first  step  in  persecution.  Pharisaism  was  the  hope  of 
Israel  and  so  the  hope  of  the  world.  Had  not  Gamaliel 
said  so  ?  When  the  real  Messiah  came  he  would  be 
a  Pharisee,  not  this  Jesus  of  Nazareth  who  had  met  a 
just  death  on  the  cross  for  his  opposition  to  the  Phari- 
saic teaching.  "Paul  had  been  nurtured  on  the 
Messianic  Hope  of  Israel.  What  a  caricature  was 
this  of  the  glorious  fulfilment  for  which  devout  Jews 
had  yearned."^  And  Stephen  was  actually  repeating 
the  blasphemies  of  Jesus  and  seeking  to  subvert  the 
customs  which  Moses  had  delivered  unto  them!    Jesus 

»  Kennedy,  "St.  Paul's  Conceptions  of  Last  Things,"  p.  82. 


SAUL  THE  PERSECUTING  RABBI  27 

himself  had  dared  to  say  that  he  would  destroy  the 
temple  itself,  and  now  Stephen  is  repeating  that  saying 
(Acts  6  :  14)  and  is  depreciating  the  value  of  the  temple 
in  the  worship  of  God  (7  :  48).  He  has  actually  charged 
us  with  not  keeping  the  law,  as  if  the  Pharisees  were 
not  orthodox!  He  even  insults  the  Sanhedrin  by  ac- 
cusing them  of  being  "betrayers  and  murderers"  of 
Jesus  (7  :  52)  I  As  if  Jesus  were  not  legally  tried  and  con- 
demned by  Pontius  Pilate  the  Roman  Governor! 
No  wonder  the  Sanhedrin  are  gnashing  their  teeth  at 
this  blasphemer  and  have  stopped  their  ears  to  hear 
no  more.  He  actually  imagines  that  he  sees  Jesus 
now!  We  will  rush  upon  him  without  waiting  for  a 
formal  vote  of  condemnation.  Even  Gamaliel  does 
not  protest.  Out  of  the  city  we  shall  go  and  stone  him 
there  as  a  common  blasphemer.  So  is  justice  satisfied 
and  the  temple  preserved. 

Saul  did  not,  indeed,  cast  a  stone  at  him.  He  could 
not  stoop  to  that,  nor  was  it  necessary  for  him  to  stain 
his  hands  with  blood  that  far.  Perhaps  he  did  not 
stop  to  analyze  his  ideas  and  emotions  very  closely  at 
the  moment.  It  was  mob  violence,  in  fact,  close  to  a 
modern  lynching.  He  could  justify  it  if  necessary,  for 
Stephen  deserved  his  fate!  Indeed,  the  Sanhedrin 
could  no  longer  put  one  to  death  without  the  consent 
of  the  Roman  Governor,  and  this  it  had  been  difficult 
to  obtain  in  the  case  of  Jesus.  On  the  whole,  therefore, 
it  was  just  as  well  to  take  the  law  into  their  own  hands. 
The  excitement  and  resentment  of  the  moment  had 


28  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

led  Saul  on  along  with  the  crowd.  There  may  have 
been  an  unconscious  personal  element  in  it  all.  If 
Saul  had  gone  down  in  defeat  before  Stephen  in  the 
Cilician  synagogue,  a  touch  of  personal  revenge  came 
in  also.  This  was  Saul's  answer  to  Stephen's  un- 
answerable addresses.  Thus  the  defeated  rabbis  had 
squared  accounts  with  Jesus  for  that  last  debate  in 
the  temple.     Stephen  would  never  trouble  Saul  again. 

Saul  was  not  merely  passive  in  the  matter  of  Stephen's 
death.  He  was  a  scholar  and  a  rabbi  and  so  left  the 
actual  killing  to  others.  But  he  was  in  hearty  sympa- 
thy with  the  deed.  "And  Saul  was  consenting  unto 
his  death"  (Acts  8:1).  The  word  here  used  (crvvev- 
hoKwv)  in  its  simple  form  is  the  one  used  of  the  Father's 
good  pleasure  in  the  Son  (Matt.  3  :  17).  It  suggests 
complacent  approval,  and  the  preposition  adds  to  the 
force  of  the  verb  ("perfective"  use  of  the  preposition). 
We  may  pause  a  moment,  therefore,  to  contemplate 
the  brilliant  young  rabbi  who  is  now  introduced  to  us 
for  the  first  time  in  Luke's  narrative.  He  was  not  the 
kind  of  a  man  to  do  things  by  halves.  He  had  been 
drawn  into  the  controversy  against  Stephen  in  behalf  of 
Pharisaism.     His  whole  soul  was  enlisted  in  the  cause. 

He  probably  did  not  at  first  expect  to  have  a  very 
active  part  in  the  matter.  Stephen  had  been  formally 
arraigned  before  the  Sanhedrin,  and  witnesses  had 
been  secured  to  testify  against  him.  It  was  Stephen's 
own  speech  which  had  precipitated  the  riot  and  the 
death  in  this  form.     But  things  had  to  take  their  course. 


SAUL  THE  PERSECUTING  RABBI  29 

There  was  no  need  of  Saul's  going  further  in  the  matter. 
One  mob  did  not  matter  so  much  after  all,  especially  as 
it  had  the  seeming  approval  of  the  members  of  the 
Sanhedrin  itself. 

2.  Saul's  Leadership  in  the  Persecution. — Saul  never 
sought  to  shift  the  responsibility  in  the  matter  to  the 
Sanhedrin.  He  always  confessed  simply :  "  I  persecuted 
the  church  of  God,  and  made  havoc  of  it"  (Gal.  1 :13), 
"I  was  before  a  blasphemer,  and  a  persecutor,  and 
injurious"  (I  Tim.  1:13).  The  wonder  ever  was  to 
him  how  Jesus  counted  him  worthy,  putting  him  into 
the  ministry.  The  narrative  of  Luke  (Acts  8:1)  seems 
to  imply  that  the  extension  of  the  persecution  to  the 
other  Christians  was  more  a  natural  evolution  than  the 
result  of  preconcerted  action.  It  is  easier  to  start  a 
fire  than  to  put  it  out.  It  is  the  history  of  mob  law 
everywhere.  It  is  first  just  for  this  one  man  guilty  of 
so  grave  a  crime.  Then  it  is  for  any  one  charged  with 
that  crime  or  even  suspected  of  it.  Then  the  ven- 
geance of  the  mob  vents  itself  on  anybody  suspected  of 
any  crime.  The  excuse  against  Stephen  had  been  that 
he  was  a  blasphemer  against  Moses  and_the  temple. 
The  charge  against  the  rest  of  the  Christians  is  that 
they  are  sympathizers  with  Stephen.  They  are  guilty 
of  the  crime  of  being  disciples  of  Jesus.  Christ  had 
sought  to  protect  the  Apostles  when  he  was  himself 
caught  in  the  toils  of  hate  and  gave  himself  up  to  his 
destiny.  (John  18  : 8).  They  had  escaped  persecution 
then,  though  Peter  had  quailed  before  the  sneers  of  the 


30  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

servants.  Since  the  Ascension  of  Jesus  the  Apostles 
had  learned  what  it  was  to  go  to  prison  for  Christ. 
They  had  the  new-found  joy,  *'  that  they  were  counted 
worthy  to  suffer  dishonor  for  the  Name"  (Acts  5  :41). 
The  death  of  Stephen  had  extended  the  persecution 
to  the  deacons  if  we  are  justified  in  so  terming  the 
Seven  chosen  in  Acts  6  : 1-6. 

But  the  persecution  that  arose  on  the  very  day  of 
Stephen's  death  was  "against  the  church  that  was  in 
Jerusalem."  There,  for  the  first  time,  was  a  general 
attack  on  the  entire  body  of  believers  in  Jerusalem. 
This  attack  was  so  "great"  that  the  bulk  of  them  fled 
for  their  lives  instanter  and  -were  scattered  throughout 
Judea  and  Samaria.  The  Apostles  stood  their  ground. 
They  had  gotten  used  to  going  to  prison.  Besides,  if 
Stephen  could  die,  so  could  they.  It  is  not  clear  whether 
the  *' devout  men"  who  gave  Stephen  decent  burial, 
were  believers  or  merely  sympathizers  who  had  cour- 
age enough  to  do  that  service  to  the  first  martyr  of  the 
faith.  The  work  of  extermination  was  swift  and  seemed 
complete. 

But  it  is  just  at  this  point  that  Saul  steps  to  the  front. 
He  wishes  no  half-way  measures.  It  is  a  great  popu- 
lar movement  to  stamp  out  the  vicious  heresy  and 
rescue  Pharisaism  from  future  peril.  In  every  crisis 
there  is  always  a  man  who  comes  to  the  surface  as  the 
man  of  the  hour.  It  is  not  always  true  that  a  man 
makes  a  crisis  or  the  crisis  the  man.  Sometimes  both 
spring  up  together  and  react  the  one  on  the  other. 


SAUL  THE  PERSECUTING  RABBI  31 

Saul  "laid  waste  the  church,  entering  every  house" 
(Acts  8:3).  Already  the  term  church  (i/cK\7ja{a)  has 
left  its  merely  etymological  sense  of  assembly  and  taken 
on  that  of  body.  It  was  a  church  when  out  of  service 
as  well  as  when  assembled.  One  can  well  imagine  the 
dumb  terror  that  entered  into  the  hearts  of  the  Christians 
who  had  remained  in  the  city.  It  was  bad  enough  to 
feel  the  senseless  rage  of  a  mob  which  spent  itself  in  a 
day.  But  here  was  relentless  hate  that  deliberately 
violated  the  precincts  of  one's  home.  The  approval  of 
the  Sanhedrin  (Acts  26 :  10)  gave  this  high-handed  action 
of  Saul  the  semblance  of  legality,  but  it  cannot  mitigate 
the  bitterness  that  filled  his  own  soul  as  he  dragged 
men  and  even  women  out  of  their  homes  to  prison  for 
the  crime  of  Christianity. 

One  might  palliate  a  spurt  or  two  of  this  sort  on  the 
part  of  the  hot-blooded  young  rabbi,  who,  like  all  perse- 
cutors, had  his  conscience  and  his  prejudices  sadly 
mixed.  He  "shut  up  many  of  the  saints  in  prison" 
(Acts  26  :  10),  and  kept  it  up  as  long  as  there  were  any 
to  seize.  His  activity  in  Jerusalem  ceased  only  when 
the  material  there  gave  out.  He  had  various  means 
of  refined  cruelty  for  those  who  did  not  flee  before  this 
wolf  who  was  ravening  the  fold.  Some  he  simply 
punished  in  the  synagogues  (Acts  26 :  11).  This  he 
did  "oftentimes,"  though  the  exact  shape  that  his  wrath 
took  is  not  made  clear.  He  even  "strove  to  make  them 
blaspheme"  the  name  of  Jesus.  Let  us  hope  that  he 
failed  in  this  attempt.    One  is  reminded  of  the  days 


32  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

of  Antiochus  Epiphanes.  Others  were  put  to  death 
by  formal  vote  of  the  Sanhedrin  and  with  Saul's  full 
approval  (Acts  26  :  10).  It  is  a  grewsome  tale  at  best, 
and  the  matter  is  not  improved  when  Luke  describes 
Saul  as  "yet  breathing  threatening  and  slaughter 
against  the  disciples  of  the  Lord"  (Acts  9:1).  That 
"yet"  is  quite  significant.  His  thirst  for  blood  was 
not  quenched  while  any  Christians  remained.  True, 
the  Apostles  were  not  seized  then,  though  why  they 
escaped  we  do  not  clearly  see.  They  remained  boldly 
behind  and  even  untouched.  There  is  sometimes  safety 
in  boldness. 

Saul  himself  has  grown  apace.  He  had  in  him  the 
material  for  an  arch-persecutor  if  the  occasion  came. 
He  was  made  of  the  right  stuff  and  his  training  under 
Gamaliel  gave  help  also.  The  touch  of  Hellenism  in 
him  was  not  enough  to  withstand  the  lion  of  Pharisa- 
ism once  aroused.  One  recalls  also  that  the  Athenians 
demanded  the  death  of  Socrates  and  Antiochus  Epiph- 
anes sought  to  inject  Hellenism  into  the  Jews  by  com- 
pulsion. Saul  had  been  taught  to  regard  the  minutest 
regulation  and  scruple  of  the  oral  tradition  as  on  a  par 
with  the  very  Word  of  Jehovah.  The  intensity  and 
ardor  of  his  nature  added  fuel  to  the  dry  tinder  of 
rabbinism.  Individual  infallibility  and  conscientious- 
ness make  a  dangerous  combination.  Once  his  blood 
was  up  it  was  easy  to  spring  from  the  place  of  helper 
at  the  death  of  Stephen  to  that  of  leader  in  a  great  move- 
ment to  rid  the  country  of  the  disciples  of  the  hated 


SAUL  THE  PERSECUTING  RABBI  33 

Nazarene.  One  can  well  suppose  that  his  former 
fellow-students  rallied  around  the  brilliant  young  leader. 
In  all  probability  Saul  led  a  student  movement  against 
Christianity  with  the  sanction  of  the  Jewish  authorities. 
The  Sanhedrin  had  itself  tried  to  put  down  this  heresy, 
but  Gamaliel  had  put  a  stop  to  their  proceedings. 
They  now  rejoiced  in  a  Pharisaic  revival  as  an  offset  to 
the  rising  tide  of  Christian  power  in  Jerusalem.  This 
tide  had  been  neglected  too  long. 

3.  Saul's  Connection  with  the  Sanhedrin. — ^The  ques- 
tion is  raised  at  once  whether  Saul  himself  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Sanhedrin.  If  one  takes  the  language  used 
by  him  in  Acts  26  :  10  ("I  gave  my  vote  against  them") 
literally,  then  he  was,  of  course,  a  member  of  this  august 
body.  It  must  be  confessed  that  this  is  the  obvious 
and  natural  way  to  take  the  language.  There  exists, 
so  far  as  I  know,  no  real  obstacle  in  the  way  of  such  a 
fact.  He  was  young,  and  yet  he  was  probably  over 
thirty.  If  he  had  to  be  married,  as  was  the  custom, 
we  have  no  evidence  to  the  contrary.  His  unmarried 
state  later  (I*  Cor.  7  :  8)  can  be  explained  just  as  well  on 
the  ground  that  he  was  a  widower.  It  is  to  be  said 
further  that  one  small  objection  to  Paul's  comments 
on  the  subject  of  marriage  would  thus  be  removed. 
It  is,  of  course,  not  impossible  to  think  of  a  merely  meta- 
phorical use  of  the  term  "vote"  in  Acts  26  :  10.  But, 
on  the  whole,  it  seems  more  than  probable  that  he 
means  to  imply  that  he  was  a  member  of  the  Sanhedrin. 
It  is  not  impossible  that  the  rather  familiar  tone  of  Acts 


34  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

22  : 5  IS  explained  by  this  fact:  "As  also  the  high  priest 
doth  bear  me  witness,  and  all  the  estate  of  the  elders: 
from  whom  also  I  received  letters  unto  the  brethren." 
Observe  that  "the  brethren"  here  are  Jewish  brethren, 
not  Christians.  Note  also  "brethren  and  fathers"  in 
verse  1.  If  he  was  a  member  of  the  Sanhedrin,  it  is 
possible  that  it  was  due  chiefly  to  his  activity  in  this 
persecution  as  a  reward  of  merit.  He  may  have  been 
promoted  rapidly  by  reason  of  his  unusual  zeal  for  the 
cause. 

At  first  blush  it  seems  a  little  strange  that  the  San- 
hedrin should  here  be  exercising  the  power  of  death 
when  in  the  trial  of  Jesus  it  is  expressly  disclaimed  by 
them  to  Pilate  (John  18  :  31).  We  do  not  know,  to  be 
sure,  the  exact  date  of  the  events  growing  out  of  the 
stoning  of  Stephen.  There  was  some  delay  in  the 
appointing  of  a  successor  to  Pontius  Pilate,  who  was 
recalled  in  A.D.  36.  But  even  before  that  time  his 
great  unpopularity  had  broken  his  authority  with  the 
people  very  largely.  It  is  entirely  possible,  therefore, 
that  the  Sanhedrin  may  have  taken  the  reins  of  au- 
thority back  into  their  own  hands  in  this  time  of  con- 
fusion. They  could  have  evaded  responsibility  for  the 
death  of  Stephen,  but  not  for  those  slain  under  SauPs 
leadership  since  he  expressly  says  that  he  "received 
authority  from  the  chief  priests"  (Acts  26:10).  But 
Luke  is  so  careful  in  other  matters  that  one  cannot 
well  doubt  his  comments  here  merely  on  the  ground  of 
our  ignorance  of  the  true  explanation.     He  has  been 


SAUL  THE  PERSECUTING  RABBI  35 

vindicated  on  too  many  points  already  where  quibbles 
of  like  nature  were  once  raised  against  him. 

But,  whether  Saul  was  an  actual  member  of  the  San- 
hedrin  or  not,  he  was  in  the  closest  touch  with  them 
now.  He  was,  indeed,  their  spokesman.  Perhaps 
Gamaliel  felt  that  his  hopes  about  Saul  were  already 
more  than  realized.  He  had  known  that  a  great  future 
was  before  him.  It  had  come  more  quickly  than  he 
had  expected.  He  could  rest  in  peace  now.  As  Presi- 
dent of  the  Sanhedrin  (A.D.  30-51)^  he  was  in  a  posi- 
tion to  work  in  thorough  accord  with  his  great  pupil 
who  was  now  so  active  in  Jewish  public  life. 

4.  Saul's  Fight  to  a  Finish. — He  was  "exceedingly 
mad  against  them"  (Acts  26  :  11).  Those  not  already 
dead  he  had  driven  out  of  town.  That  ought  to  have 
satisfied  an  ordinary  man.  But  Saul  was  not  an  ordi- 
nary man.  He  "persecuted  them  even  unto  foreign 
cities."  "Beyond  measure"  (Gal.  1 :  13)  he  was  zealous 
in  his  persecution.  No  wonder  that  the  poor  fleeing 
disciples  went  as  far  as  Damascus  and  Cyprus.  The 
marvel  is  th^t  they  stopped  at  all.  This  Pharisaic 
war-horse  sniffed  the  battle  from  afar.  His  very  breath 
(evirviodv)  was  threat  and  slaughter  (Acts  "9:1).  He 
seemed  to  have  paused  a  moment  to  survey  the  field 
of  carnage.  News  came  to  him  that  a  band  of  believers 
in  Jesus  had  collected  in  Damascus.  That  was  enough 
for  Saul.  He  "went  unto  the  high  priest,  and  asked 
of  him  letters  to  Damascus  unto  the  synagogues,  that 
'  Pick,  "  What  is  the  Talmud?  "  p.  31. 


36  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

if  he  found  any  that  were  of  the  Way,  whether  men  or 
women,  he  might  bring  them  bound  to  Jerusalem" 
(Acts  9:1  f.).  Once  in  prison  in  Jerusalem  the  pun- 
ishment (Acts  22  : 5)  would  be  easy.  He  was  deter- 
mined to  finish  the  business  while  he  was  at  it. 

He  was  going  with  "the  authority  and  commission 
of  the  chief  priests"  (Acts  26 :  12),  and  that  authority 
would  have  been  acknowledged  beyond  doubt  if  he 
could  once  have  served  his  papers.  The  Jew,  like  the 
modern  Roman  Catholic,  owed  a  double  allegiance, 
one  to  his  state,  the  other  to  the  ecclesiastical  or  temple 
authorities  at  Jerusalem.  It  is  not  certain  whether 
Damascus  was  at  this  time  under  Roman  rule  or  under 
a  governor  of  Aretas  as  was  the  case  a  little  later 
(II  Cor.  11 :32).  The  point  is  not  material.  In  either 
event  the  Sanhedrin  claimed  religious  control  over 
Jews,  and  Christians  as  yet  were  treated  merely  as  a 
sect  of  Jews  like  the  Sadducees  or  Pharisees. 

Saul  was  now  the  typical  heresy-hunter  of  all  time. 
He  has  been  carried  on  by  the  tide  of  events  till  he  is 
the  acknowledged  leader  of  aggressive  and  triumphant 
Pharisaism.  He  felt  himself  pitted  against  the  very 
name  of  Jesus.  Brutal  passion  was  linked  with  high 
motives.  He  felt  personal  zest  in  his  attacks  on  the  fol- 
lowers of  Jesus.  He  had  outlined  a  definite  programme 
of  extermination,  and  complete  success  was  within  his 
grasp. 

It  is  idle  to  conjecture  what  might  have  happened  if 
Saul  had  met  Jesus  in  Jerusalem  before  his  crucifixion. 


SAUL  THE  PERSECUTING  RABBI  37 

The  probability  is  that  he  would  have  joined  the  Jewish 
leaders  in  crucifying  him,  for  Jesus  opposed  the  precious 
theology  which  Saul  had  learned  from  Gamaliel.  But, 
whatever  might  have  happened  then,  the  offence  of  the 
cross  was  insuperable.  To  Saul  the  cross  was  the  very 
curse  of  God  upon  this  Messianic  pretender  (Gal.  3  :  13). 
He  richly  deserved  the  shameful  death  that  befell  him. 
Perhaps  as  Saul  rode  upon  his  way  to  Damascus  his 
mind  was  full  of  thoughts  about  the  great  events  that 
had  recently  occurred.  The  Christians  were  a  stub- 
born set  and  were  hard  to  teach  the  truth,  the  ortho- 
doxy of  the  time.  The  death  of  Jesus  ought  to  have 
been  enough.  But  Stephen  had  gone  the  same  way. 
It  was  a  pity,  for  Stephen  was  a  man  of  parts.  After 
all,  the  leaders  were  the  most  responsible.  He  would 
take  up  the  case  of  the  Apostles  when  he  returned  to 
Jerusalem,  for  they  had  been  neglected  too  long.  It 
was  too  bad  that  these  ignorant  and  misguided  fol- 
lowers of  Jesus  had  to  be  slaughtered  like  sheep.  It 
was  particularly  bad  about  the  women.  He  had 
shrunk  back  at  that  a  number  of  times,  but  the  miserable 
business  would  soon  be  over.  Then  he  could  return 
to  the  study  of  theology.  There  were"  some  new 
apocalypses  that  he  had  not  yet  had  time  to  read.  Of 
course  it  was  not  worth  while  to  make  any  serious 
investigation  of  the  claims  of  Christianity.  It  was 
bound  to  be  false  since  it  was  opposed  to  Pharisaism 
which  was  the  test  of  all  truth.  Gamaliel  was  a  great 
teacher.    How  fortunate  he  had  been  in  his  career 


38  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

so  far,  in  his  parents,  his  home  advantages,  his  theo- 
logical training,  this  very  uprising  which  had  given  him 
his  opportunity.  He  w^as  now  the  victorious  champion 
of  orthodox  Judaism.  The  path  ran  straight  before  him 
to  glory  and  power.  True,  Stephen  had  said  some 
things  about  Jesus  that  had  a  fascination  for  him  at 
times  when  he  had  leisure  for  abstract  thought.  Some 
day  he  would  look  further  into  this  question  of  the 
Messiah.  Then  at  night,  ofttimes,  the  wistful  face  of 
Stephen  haunted  him.  Just  before  he  died  he  really 
did  look  like  an  angel,  and  he  spoke  as  if  he  were  talk- 
ing directly  to  Jesus.  What  if  it  should  turn  out  after 
all  that  Stephen  was  right,  that  Jesus  was  really  the 
Messiah,  that  all  these  disciples  whom  |ie  had  destroyed, 
men  and  women,  were  pious  people?  The  faces  of 
some  of  them  were  strangely  ecstatic  as  they  died! 
And  why  did  they  die  so  cheerfully?  How  could 
heretics  have  any  consolation  in  the  hour  of  death? 
But  away  with  such  thoughts  which  sting  one  like  an 
ox's  goad.  The  road  to  Damascus  was  indeed  beauti- 
ful, but  the  noonday  sun  was  growing  very  hot  and 
the  glare  of  the  sand  was  painful.  It  would  be  pleasant 
to  be  at  the  journey's  end.  What  a  surprise  he  had  in 
store  for  the  heretics  in  Damascus!  They  could  hardly 
know  that  he  was  coming.  Damascus  was  a  great 
and  ancient  city.    He  would  be  glad  to  see  it. 


CHAPTER  III 

SAUL'S  VISION  OF  JESUS 

"Saul,  Saul,  why  persecutest  thou  me?"  (Acts  9:4). 

1.  The  Challenge  by  J esm.— The  darkest  hour  is 
just  before  the  dawn.  From  the  human  point  of  view 
Saul  was  carrying  everything  before  him.  Unless  his 
career  was  stopped  the  annihilation  of  Christianity 
may  have  seemed  imminent  to  some  of  the  disciples. 
And  who  was  there  who  could  stop  his  onward  course  ? 
No  one  of  the  Apostles  at  Jerusalem  seemed  equal  to 
the  task,  nor  indeed  all  of  them  combined.  No  one  of 
them  could  stand  before  Saul  nor  was  equal  in  ability, 
training  and  experience.  One  may  well  contemplate 
this  "if  of  history."  What  would  have  been  the  his- 
tory of  Christianity  if  Saul  had  not  been  converted? 
It  would  not  have  been  exterminated.  That  much  we 
know.^  But  the  difficulties  in  its  path  would  have 
been  immeasurably  greater  than  they  were  when  he 
stepped  out  of  the  way.  A  man  is  sometimes  more  than 
a  kingdom.  Alexander  was  more  powerful  than  all 
the  hosts  of  Darius.     If  Washington  had  been  on  the 

*  "But  the  Good  Shepherd  had  heard  the  cries  of  the  trembling 
flock  and  went  forth  to  face  the  wolf  on  their  behalf."  Stalker, 
"Lifeof  St.  Paul,"p.  43. 

39 


40  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

side  of  the  British,  the  whole  course  of  American  his- 
tory might  have  been  different. 

Jesus  had  said  that  he  would  be  with  the  disciples 
all  the  days  (Matt.  28  :  20).  They  had  never  needed 
him  more  than  now.  It  did  seem  to  the  despondent 
disciples  as  if  Jesus  no  longer  cared  what  became  of 
his  cause.  Was  he  powerless  to  interfere?  But  just 
at  this  point  he  did  interpose  in  a  wonderful  way. 
From  every  point  of  view  we  come  here  to  one  of  the 
epochs  in  human  history,  not  merely  an  epoch  in  the 
life  of  Saul.  So  many  matters  clamor  for  discussion 
at  this  point  that  only  a  selection  of  the  most  pressing 
and  pertinent  can  be  attempted.  In  the  whole  dis- 
cussion one  should  keep  in  mind  the  larger  aspects 
of  the  matter,  not  merely  the  personal  experience  of 
one  man,  important  and  vital  as  that  is.  If  Jesus  could 
reach  out  his  hand  in  behalf  of  his  disciples,  now  was 
the  time  and  Saul  was  the  man  to  lay  hold  of  in  this 
supernatural  way. 

We  may  pass  by  the  abstract  discussion  of  the  possi- 
bility of  miracles.  The  world  has  largely  lost  interest 
in  that  phase  of  the  subject,  and  few,  save  the  boldest 
materialists  like  Haeckel,  have  the  hardihood  to  say 
any  more  what  God  can  and  cannot  do.  It  is  utterly 
unscientific  to  approach  this  great  event  from  the  point 
of  view  of  the  impossibility  of  the  miraculous,  as  that 
term  is  used  for  the  unusual  interposition  of  God  in 
human  affairs.  Indeed  so  strong  and  clear  to  many 
has  come  the  conception  of  the  immanence  of  Gk>d  in 


SAUL'S  VISION  OF  JESUS  41 

nature  that  the  absence  of  God  would  seem  more  of 
a  miracle  than  his  presence.  And,  after  all,  what  we 
call  the  laws  of  nature  are  merely  our  notions  or  dis- 
coveries of  God's  ways,  and  these  laws  worked  before 
we  discovered  them  as  do  the  many  others  that  we  have 
not  yet  found  out. 

But  still  we  must  squarely  face  the  question.  Did 
Saul  see  Jesus  ?  That  is  a  matter  to  be  determined  by 
historical  evidence.  We  need  not  here  enter  into  the 
metaphysical  or  psychical  phases  of  the  subject  which 
are  brought  up  by  the  word  axpOrj  ** appeared"  in  I 
Cor.  15 : 8,  except  to  observe  that  it  is  the  very  same 
word  that  Paul  uses  about  the  appearance  of  Jesus 
to  the  Apostles  and  others  after  the  resurrection 
(I  Cor.  15  :  5-7).  Luke  uses  the  same  word  about  the 
appearance  of  Jesus  in  Luke  24 :  34.  It  is  no  mere  refine- 
ment of  PauFs.  What  Paul's  doctrine  of  the  resurrec- 
tion of  the  body  of  Jesus  was  is  not  the  point  at  issue 
here.  It  is  the  personality  of  Jesus  in  visible  and 
audible  form  that  Saul  claims  to  have  met.  The 
notion  of  a  mere  vision  of  Jesus,  who  had  no  real  body, 
does  not  relieve  the  incident  of  its  supernatural  aspect. 
That,  after  all,  is  the  crux  of  this  problem  as  it  is  of  the 
resurrection  of  Jesus  himself,  not  to  say  the  funda- 
mental question  of  Christianity  itself.*  It  is  obviously 
true  that  the  new  knowledge  in  psychology  decreases 
the  difficulties  in  the  way  of  our  apprehension  of  the 
phenomena  connected  with  Saul's  conversion.  We 
» Cf.  Orr,  "The  Resurrection  of  Jesus"  (1908). 


42  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

may  not  hope  that  the  discoveries  concerning  the  sub- 
conscious mind  or  telepathy  will  relieve  the  incident 
of  all  the  supernatural  element.  But  it  is  increasingly 
hard  on  scientific  grounds  to  deny  the  possibility  of 
the  manifestation  of  God  to  man.  What  Paul  means 
beyond  controversy  is  that  he  had  a  personal  interview 
with  Jesus  of  Nazareth  after  his  death.  In  that  inter- 
view he  heard  the  voice  of  Jesus  and  understood  his 
words  in  a  conversation  of  some  length  (Acts  9  :  4-6 ; 
22  :  7-10;  26  :  14-18).  It  was  not  a  mere  voice  that  Saul 
heard.  He  claims  that  he  saw  Jesus  (I  Cor.  9:1). 
There  are  difficulties  of  detail  about  the  narratives  in 
Acts,  but  they  are  not  specially  material  and  have 
possible  explanations,  such  as  the  men  standing  speech- 
less (Acts  9:7)  and  the  falling  down  of  all  (Acts  26:14), 
where  two  stages  may  be  referred  to,  though  we  do 
not  know.  In  the  contradiction  between  hearing  the 
voice  (uKovovre^  r^?  (fxovrjf;  Acts  9  :  7)  and  not  hearing 
the  voice  (rrjv  (f>covr)v  ovk  rjKova-av  Acts  22  :  9)  the  dif- 
ference in  case  (hearing  the  sound  with  the  genitive  and 
understanding  the  sense  with  the  accusative)  is  in  har- 
mony with  ancient  Greek  usage.  They  all  beheld  the 
light,  but  Jesus  spoke  to  Saul  (Acts  22 : 9),  not  to  the 
men.  They  were  all  dazed  by  the  brilliance  of  the  light 
that  flashed  at  mid-day  above  the  brightness  of  the  sun 
(Acts  26  :  13).  It  is  admitted  that  the  men  with  Saul 
did  not  comprehend  this  event  and  that  Saul  fell  to  the 
ground  himself  (Acts  9 : 4)  from  the  glory  of  the  light  out 
of  heaven.    When  he  rose  from  the  earth,  he  was  blind. 


SAUL'S  VISION  OF  JESUS  43 

What  happened  to  Saul  on  the  road  to  Damascus? 
Only  three  alternatives  are  possible.  Either  Saul 
invented  this  story  as  an  excuse  for  his  change  of  atti- 
tude toward  Jesus,  or  he  was  deceived  by  a  wrong 
interpretation  of  a  natural  phenomenon,  or  he  has  told 
what  actually  occurred.  I  see  no  escape  from  these  al- 
ternatives. We  cannot  throw  on  Luke  the  responsi- 
bility of  making  up  the  whole  matter  including  Saul's 
speeches  in  Acts  22  and  26.  For  one  thing,  he  did 
not  even  take  the  trouble  to  correct  verbal  disagree- 
ments. Another  and  much  more  important  point  is 
that  Saul  himself  repeatedly  affirms  the  heart  of  his 
story  in  his  own  Epistles.  If  we  left  Acts  out  entirely 
we  should  have  substantially  the  same  problem  as  be- 
fore. The  position  that  Saul  deliberately  made  up 
such  a  story  to  justify  his  desertion  of  Judaism  and 
espousal  of  Christianity  is  a  psychological  impossibility 
plain  to  any  one  familiar  with  human  nature  and  the 
facts  of  Saul's  life  up  to  this  point,  not  to  say  afterward. 
That  he  misinterpreted  a  natural  experience  is  more 
worthy  of  discussion.  But  what  sort  of  an  experience  ? 
That  he  had  an  epileptic  fit  ?  Then  how  explain  the 
light,  the  voice,  the  effect  on  the  other  men?  That 
Saul  was  asleep  and  was  awakened  by  a  clap  of  thunder 
and  a  flash  of  lightning  ?  But  it  seemed  to  have  been 
a  clear  day,  not  to  mention  the  detailed  conversation 
and  Saul's  claim  that  he  saw  Jesus.  If  one  supposes 
that  Saul  had  worked  himself  into  a  fury  over  this 
business  of  persecution  and  suddenly  went  mad,  he 


M  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

has  more  problems  on  his  hands  than  he  had  before. 
If  one  imagines  that  Saul,  who  did  have  trances  and 
dreams  later,  had  a  nightmare  or  a  sunstroke,  he  like- 
wise makes  Saul  read  back  into  a  mass  of  incoherence 
the  most  coherent  and  definite  expression  of  his  whole 
life.  However  possible  such  a  thing  might  be  for  a 
mere  neurotic,  SauFs  mental  vigor  and  clearness  re- 
main indisputable  and  a  protest  against  such  playing 
with  the  deepest  experience  of  a  man  like  him.  Add 
to  all  this  the  clearness  of  SauFs  recollection  of  the 
interview  (that  it  was  in  the  Aramaic  tongue)  and 
SauFs  instant  apprehension  of  the  momentous  issues 
raised.  Besides  the  whole  current  of  his  career  was 
flowing  in  a  consistent  channel.  Schmiedel,  indeed, 
admits  that  Saul  imagined  that  he  saw  Jesus.  It  was 
an  hallucination,  but  Saul  was  sincere  in  his  belief  that 
he  had  had  this  experience.  But  here  again  Saul  is 
the  last  of  men  to  be  the  victim  of  a  mere  hallucination, 
especially  on  a  theme  so  vital  to  his  whole  career. 
Baur  (''Paul,"  Vol.  I,  p.  68)  doubts  the  historic  reality 
of  the  bright  light,  but  at  last  confesses  his  inability 
to  explain  away  the  experience  of  Saul  by  mere  dia- 
lectical or  psychological  analysis  ("Das  Christentum," 
etc.).  No  rational  motive  for  a  deliberate  change  has 
ever  been  suggested,  and  Saul  was  a  rational  man.  I 
mean  no  rational  motive  apart  from  Saul's  own  state- 
ment of  the  case.  Against  his  own  wish  and  plan  he 
was  seized  and  turned  round.  Saul  says  that  Jesus 
did  it.     No  one  has  yet  successfully  explained  away 


SAUL'S  VISION  OF  JESUS  45 

Saul's  own  explanation  of  what  occurred  to  him  on  the 
way  to  Damascus. 

Saul  was  too  clear-headed  to  quibble  with  Jesus 
about  the  use  of  "me"  (Acts  9 :  4).  He  would  have 
persecuted  Jesus  in  person  if  he  had  had  a  chance. 
He  was  not  now  persecuting  the  disciples  of  Jesus  for 
their  own  sakes.  It  was  the  teaching  and  career  of 
Jesus  that  he  was  aiming  at  all  the  time.  He  did  not 
yet  know  how  true  in  the  mystic  sense  it  was  that  Jesus 
was  identified  with  his  people.  "Caput  pro  membris 
clamabat"  (Augustine).  The  matter  was  at  bottom 
a  personal  one  between  Saul  and  Jesus.  By  the  most 
unexpected  turn  in  a  man's  career  possible  he  suddenly 
was  face  to  face  with  Jesus  of  Nazareth  whose  Messianic 
claims  he  had  denied,  whose  name  he  had  traduced, 
and  whose  disciples  he  had  led  to  prison  and  death. 
The  zealot  for  the  traditions  of  the  fathers  was  at  once 
put  on  the  defensive  and  challenged  to  give  a  reason 
for  the  faith  that  was  in  him  and  in  particular  for  the 
excess  of  zeal  shown  in  his  persecution  of  the  saints. 

2.  The  Qvaniary  of  Savl. — It  is  a  shock  to  have 
one's  unquestioned  beliefs  suddenly  challenged,  espe- 
cially if  one  had  simply  assumed  them  as  true  without 
any  effort  to  formulate  an  explanation  of  them.  Saul 
was  no  novice  in  Pharisaism.  He  knew  what  the 
rabbis  taught.  He  knew  the  line  of  cleavage  in  theol- 
ogy that  divided  the  Pharisees  from  the  disciples  of 
Jesus.  If  he  had  been  asked  at  another  time,  he  could 
^lave  presented  a  reasoned,  if  not  rational,  justification 


46  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

of  the  whole  case  of  ceremonial  religion  against  the 
emotional  spiritual  theology  of  the  Christians.  But 
he  was  manifestly  caught  at  a  disadvantage  and  there 
was  no  time  for  theological  fencing.  He  was  face  to 
face  with  the  eternal  realities  and  the  foundations 
of  his  theological  prepossessions  were  crumbling  all 
around  him.  It  was  idle  to  argue  on  minor  points 
when  the  major  premise  was  in  ruins.  He  will  not 
attempt  to  answer  the  "why"  of  this  inquiry  till  he 
learns  "who"  it  is  (Acts  9  :  4  f.)  that  makes  the  demand. 
One  thinks  rapidly  in  an  emergency.  He  speaks 
deferentially  and  the  word  "Lord"  apparently  implies 
more  than  merely  the  civil  "Sir"  of  ordinary  address 
which  the  word  may  mean.  He  is  willing  to  admit 
the  supernatural  (perhaps  angelic)  visitation.  Beyond 
doubt  Saul  was  filled  with  awe  and  so  was  on  the  way 
toward  agreement  with  the  demands  of  the  strange 
visitor. 

Besides,  the  stranger  had  made  use  of  a  proverb 
that  bore  marvellously  on  his  personal  situation.  "It 
is  hard  for  thee  to  kick  against  the  goad "  (Acts  26 : 
14).  How  came  this  visitor  to  know  that  Saul  had 
had  secret  struggles,  may,  indeed,  have  been  but  just 
now  struggling  with  them  in  an  acute  form?  When, 
indeed,  Saul  himself  at  first  may  not  have  been  fully 
conscious  of  it?^ 

3.  The  Personal  Issue  Pressed  by  Jesus. — ^The  reply 
of  the  stranger  repeats  the  charge  of  the  first  inquiry 
»  Bacon,  "Story  of  St.  Paul,"  p.  37. 


SAUL'S  VISION  OF  JESUS  47 

"whom  thou  persecuted"  (Acts  9  :  5).  The  repetition 
of  the  charge  would  not  decrease  the  tension  of  the 
moment.  His  answer  removes  all  doubt  as  to  the 
personality  of  the  speaker  by  the  use  of  the  name 
Jesus  of  Nazareth  (Acts  22  :  8).  He  calls  himself  Jesus, 
the  human  name  hated  by  Saul.  He  does  not  here  claim 
to  be  the  Christ  (Messiah).  It  is  not  a  time  to  raise 
theological  discussion  by  the  use  of  terms.  It  is  the 
historic  Jesus  of  Nazareth  who  here  converses  with 
Saul  of  Tarsus.  He  is  confronted  with  his  hitherto 
unseen  enemy,  and  now  he  must  explain  why  he  hates 
him.  While  Saul  hesitates,  for  he  is  in  doubt  for  once 
in  his  life,  Jesus  bids  him  to  rise  to  his  feet.  Jesus 
resumes  the  conversation,  when  Saul,  in  a  conflict  of 
emotion,  asks  what  he  is  to  do.  Jesus  tells  him  to  go  on 
to  Damascus  as  he  had  planned.  There  he  would  find 
one  who  would  tell  him  what  to  do  (Acts  9:6).  A  new 
destiny  is  now  "appointed"  for  him  (Acts  22:10). 
For  a  while  he  must  remain  in  darkness  as  to  what  that 
destiny  is.  In  Acts  26 :  16-18  Paul,  in  his  address  to 
Agrippa,  in  the  brief  summary  omits  the  mission  to 
Damascus  and  puts  in  the  mouth  of  Jesus  the  message 
of  Ananias.  But  that  is  a  mere  detail  and  easily  under- 
stood. 

Jesus  has  sharpened  the  issue  between  himself  and 
Saul  of  Tarsus.  He  assumes  that  Saul  surrenders. 
What  will  Saul  do  now  ?  The  crisis  of  his  life  is  upon 
him.  He  cannot  turn  to  Gamaliel  for  advice,  nor  to 
his  father  and  mother.     Here  in  the  open  and  practically 


4S  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

alone  with  this  wondrous  Person  he  must  decide.  We 
may  well  imagine  that  he  foresaw  what  would  happen 
to  him  if  he  gave  up  to  Jesus.  He  knew  the  Pharisees. 
He  saw  what  he  had  to  undergo.  But  was  Jesus  what 
he  claimed  to  be?  What  must  he  answer  to  this 
Voice? 

4.  The  Surrender  of  <SawZ.— Did  Saul  give  up  to 
Christ  at  this  point,  or  was  it  only  after  his  eyes  were 
opened  in  Damascus  that  he  was  converted?  There 
is  no  doubt  as  to  the  conviction  at  this  point.  The 
matter  is  not  very  material,  but  one  is  led  to  conclude 
that  the  surrender  took  place  during  the  interview 
with  Jesus  from  the  question  which  Saul  made  to 
Jesus:  "What  shall  I  do.  Lord?"  (Acts  22  :  10).  The 
temper  of  this  inquiry  is  one  of  submission  to  the  will 
of  Jesus.  He  surrenders  on  the  spot  and  at  discretion. 
There  is  no  reserve.  He  is  the  slave  of  Jesus  from  this 
time  forth,  to  obey  the  commands  of  the  Lord  Christ. 
Light  had  shone  into  his  heart,  "the  light  of  the  knowl- 
edge of  the  glory  of  God  in  the  face  of  Jesus  Christ" 
(II  Cor.  4:6).  He  had  seen  the  face  of  Jesus  be- 
fore he  fell  to  the  earth  and  darkness  came  over 
him. 

Stephen  was  right  when  he  thought  that  he  looked 
upon  Jesus  standing  at  the  right  hand  of  God.  The 
spirit  of  controversy  has  left  Saul.  He  wishes  to  know 
what  Jesus. wishes  for  him  to  do.  "I  was  not  diso- 
bedient unto  the  heavenly  vision"  (Acts  26 :  19). 

This  interpretation  of  the  story  is  not  without  diffi- 


SAUL'S  VISION  OF  JESUS  49 

culty,  though  the  most  probable  on  the  whole.  It  is 
hard  to  think  of  so  radical  a  change  in  a  man  like 
Saul  taking  place  so  suddenly.  But  a  tornado  had 
swept  over  Saul  and  there  was  no  room  left  for  dispute 
with  the  storm.  Some  light  is  thrown  on  the  matter 
by  the  words  of  Jesus  about  kicking  against  the  goad 
(Acts  26  :  14).  They  suggest  a  struggle  in  Saul's  soul 
that  had  been  going  on  for  some  time.  Our  ignorance 
of  such  a  struggle  does  not  controvert  the  words  of 
Christ  on  the  subject.  Saul  does  not  contradict  the 
indictment  of  Jesus.  Saul  had  failed  in  the  moment 
of  his  triumph.  Persecution  was  futile.  Saul's  state 
of  mind  may  have  been  more  ready  for  the  capture 
by  Jesus  than  we  know.  Two  explanations  of  the 
possible  preparation  in  Saul's  own  mind  have  been 
offered.  One  (see  Findlay,  on  Paul,  in  Hastings' 
"D.  B.")  view  is  that  the  goad  was  Saul's  struggle  with 
the  law  from  the  awakened  sense  of  sin  (Rom.  7  :  9  f.). 
It  was  a  bootless  conflict  with  the  commands  of  the 
law.  Pharisaism  was  not  wholly  satisfactory.  The 
other  view  fs  that  Jesus  had  more  fascination  for  Saul 
than  he  had  been  willing  to  admit.  Stephen  had  left 
his  mark  upon  Saul  who  was  really  to  take  up  the 
unfinished  task  of  this  exponent  of  spiritual  religion. 
In  spite  of  his  vigorous  attacks  on  Christianity  he  had 
had  secret  misgivings  as  to  whether,  after  all,  Stephen 
might  not  be  right.  This  explanation  is  well  set  forth 
by  Bruce.^  The  very  vehemence  of  Saul's  persecution 
*  "  St.  Paul's  Conception  of  Christianity." 


60  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

was  partly  due  to  the  lurking  doubt  that  Jesus  might 
be  in  truth  the  Messiah. 

"Who  lights  the  fagots? 
Not  the  full  faith;  no,  but  the  lurking  doubt." 

This  inward  struggle  may  very  well  have  included 
both  of  these  elements.  The  sudden  and  penetrating 
question  of  Jesus  with  this  remonstrance  served  to 
reveal  Saul  to  himself.  The  inner  light  from  Christ's 
face  exposed  Saul's  heart  to  his  own  gaze.  Often  the 
man  who  shouts  the  loudest  his  own  orthodoxy  is  a 
heretic  at  heart.  All  that  may  be  needed  for  crystalli- 
zation is  a  jar  of  the  glass.  It  is  one  of  the  causes  for 
gratitude  that  it  was  not  psychologically  impossible 
for  Saul  of  Tarsus  to  turn  his  face  in  full  surrender  to 
Jesus  of  Nazareth. 

But,  when  all  is  said,  there  remains  the  supreme 
difficulty.  Why  did  Saul  surrender  to  Jesus?  As 
a  matter  of  fact  at  bottom  the  surrender  of  Saul  to 
Jesus  does  not  differ  from  that  of  others.  Jesus  as- 
sumes the  mastery  of  Saul  at  once.  Saul  wavered 
not  for  a  moment  afterward.  His  course  had  run 
straight  on  and  consistently  up  to  this  point.  He  all 
at  once  wheeled  right  round  and  forever  kept  to  the 
new  turn  in  his  life.  I  have  a  notion  that  there  is 
something  in  this  contact  with  Jesus  that  is  not  told. 
Perhaps  in  the  brief  instant  before  darkness  came  Saul 
saw  the  glory  of  God  in  the  face  of  Jesus  (II  Cor.  4:6). 
The  transcendent,  appealing,  melting,  powerful  look 


SAUL'S  VISION  OF  JESUS  51 

of  Jesus,  as  in  the  case  of  Peter,  may  have  broken  every 
barrier  down.  The  stem  will  of  Saul  gave  way  be- 
fore the  imperial  will  of  Jesus.  "It  was  by  something 
which  may  perhaps  best  be  called  a  divine  contagion 
that  the  spirit  of  Paul  was  absorbed  into  the  life  of 
Christ."^ 

5.  The  Temporary  Darkness. — No  reason  for  the 
blindness  is  assigned  other  than  the  one  given  by  Saul 
himself.  "I  could  not  see  for  the  glory  of  that  light 
(Acts  22:11).  Luke  (Acts  9:8)  naively  remarks: 
*'  When  his  eyes  were  opened,  he  saw  nothing."  He  had 
spiritual  light  though  physical  blindness  possessed  him. 
The  contrast  of  the  helpless  blind  man  led  by  the  hand 
to  Damascus  with  the  masterful  rabbi  who  was  riding 
the  spirit  of  persecution  to  victory  is  complete.  Cer- 
tainly the  pathos  of  the  situation  is  consonant  with 
the  sudden  whirl  in  the  fortunes  of  Saul,  whatever  may 
have  been  God*s  purpose  in  this  affliction.  The  tables 
were  completely  turned.  He  was  now  himself  led  by 
the  hand  of  Jesus  (Phil.  3  :  12)  and  the  spirit  of  perse- 
cution had  died  out  in  him  forever. 

Perhaps  one  object  of  the  blindness  to  the  outer 
world  was  to  give  Saul  a  better  opportunity"  for  mental 
readjustment.  The  affliction  would  be  a  perpetual 
reminder  of  the  genuineness  of  his  experience.  The 
tornado  had  left  his  house  of  theology  in  a  state  of  ruin. 
As  he  sat  in  the  ashes  of  humiliation,  he  could  see  the 

» Percy  Gardner,  "Historic  View  of  the  New  Testament," 
p.  216. 


52  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

Phoenix  of  a  new  theology  rise.  The  vision  of  Christ 
had  changed  the  whole  world  for  Saul.  All  his  anti- 
Christian  premises  and  conclusions  had  vanished  in 
a  moment.  As  yet,  and  always,  in  fact,  Jesus  had  come 
to  him  "as  to  the  child  untimely  born"  (I  Cor.  15  : 8). 
At  this  juncture  it  was  all  so  new  and  strange  that  he 
needed  to  feel  his  way  and  had  to  grope  awhile.  It 
was  appropriate  that  these  three  days  of  blindness 
should  be  a  time  of  fasting  also  (Acts  9:9). 

It  was  fitting  that  he  should  go  on  to  Damascus. 
His  papers  for  the  arrest  of  the  disciples  were  now 
useless.  But  it  would  bring  matters  to  a  clearer  focus 
for  him  to  take  his  stand  in  Damascus  with  the  very 
people  whose  destruction  he  had  had  in  mind.  He  would 
never  persecute  again,  though  he  would  often  be  the 
victim  of  persecution. 

6.  The  Appeal  to  Ananias. — It  is,  perhaps,  needless 
to  moralize  on  the  reason  for  the  use  of  a  man  like 
Ananias  to  induct  Saul  in  a  more  formal  way  into  the 
outward  observances  of  Christianity.  The  miracle 
was  necessary  to  halt  Saul  and  turn  his  course.  A 
miracle  is  not  needed  for  the  more  humble  duties  that 
fell  to  the  lot  of  Ananias,  save  the  opening  of  SauFs 
eyes.  This  of  itself  is  explanation  enough  for  the 
fact  that  in  these  respects  Saul  followed  the  usual  course 
of  other  believers  in  Jesus. 

But  even  Ananias  had  to  be  made  ready  for  Saul. 
The  fame  of  the  arch-persecutor  had  gone  far  and  wide. 
It  is  the  Lord  Jesus  who  appears  to  Ananias  to  per- 


SAUL'S  VISION  OF  JESUS  53 

suade  him  to  receive  Saul  to  his  heart.  This  is  evident 
from  the  terms  used  in  Acts  9  :  15  ff.  The  difficulty  of 
this  appearance  of  Jesus  is  certainly  no  greater  than  that 
to  Saul  and  is  free  from  the  outward  phenomena.  But 
the  heart  of  the  problem  remains  the  same,  which  is 
the  manifestation  of  the  Risen  Christ  to  a  mortal  man. 
That  is  a  supernatural  fact,  not  an  ordinary  experience. 
There  is,  of  course,  the  further  difference  that  in  the 
appearance  of  Saul  there  was  not  a  mere  vision. 
Ananias  is  not,  however,  thrown  into  the  state  of  ex- 
citement that  was  true  of  Saul.  He  recognizes  the 
voice  of  the  Lord,  but  is  not  willing  to  obey  without 
protest  (cf.  Simon  Peter  on  the  house-top  at  Joppa). 
Evidently  Saul,  at  the  house  of  Judas  (curious  names 
to  be  revived  in  SauFs  experience,  Judas  and  Ananias), 
had  made  no  proclamation  of  the  fact  that  he  was  now 
a  follower  of  Jesus.  The  news  of  his  mission  had  ap- 
parently come  to  Damascus  ahead  of  him,  and  the  fact 
that  he  had  papers  from  the  chief  priests  for  the  binding 
of  the  believers  was  also  known.  Ananias  knew  "how 
much  evil  he  did  to  thy  saints  at  Jerusalem"  (Acts  9  :  13). 
This  is  an  interesting  colloquy  where  the  servant  shows 
more  anxiety  for  the  safety  of  the  saints  than  the  Master 
does.  It  was  only  after  further  assurance  of  the  Lord's 
purpose  concerning  Saul  (Acts  9 :  15  f.)  that  Ananias 
consented  to  do  his  part  by  Saul. 

Saul,  indeed,  did  not  know  of  the  reluctance  of 
Ananias  to  welcome  him  to  the  fold,  this  wolf  suddenly 
lying  down  with  the  lambs,  for  he  speaks  only  well  of 


54  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

Ananias  (Acts  22 :  12).  But  Saul  himself  had  been 
granted  a  vision  of  his  benefactor  coming  to  him  and 
laying  his  hands  upon  him  that  he  might  receive  his 
sight  again  (Acts  9  :  12).  Thus  again,  in  a  truly  un- 
usual way,  a  welcome  was  provided  for  Saul  among 
the  Christians  of  Damascus.  If  one  is  disposed  to 
scout  the  possibility  or  probabihty  of  such  care  on  the 
part  of  Jesus  in  such  a  matter,  let  him  consider  the 
sure  fate  of  Saul  in  Damascus  if  he  had  come  announc- 
ing himself  a  new  recruit  for  the  cross!  No  one  would 
have  believed  this  wolf  in  sheep's  clothing!  The  dis- 
ciples knew  too  well  his  teeth  and  claws. 

But,  once  he  started,  Ananias  opened  his  whole 
heart.  He  greeted  him  as '' Brother  Saul"  (Acts  9  :  17), 
and  explained  to  him  that  the  same  Jesus  who  had  ap- 
peared to  him  h^d  sent  him.  Thus  Saul  knew  it  was 
true,  for  he  had  not  told  his  wondrous  experience  and 
yet  it  was  known.  Thus,  at  the  very  start,  SauFs  ex- 
perience of  grace  in  Christ  was  the  open  sesame  to 
other  Christian  hearts.  What  exact  relation  existed 
between  the  laying  on  of  the  hands  and  the  opening 
of  Saul's  eyes  we  may  not  settle.  It  was,  indeed,  a 
miraculous  restoration,  and  synchronized,  not  his  con- 
version, which  had  already  occurred,  but  the  bestowal 
of  the  Holy  Spirit  (Acts  9:17).  It  is  one  of  the  mysteries 
of  the  apostolic  history  how  the  bestowal  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  for  service,  not  for  salvation,  was  so  often 
at  the  hands  of  men  and  accompanied  by  miracles.  It 
does  not,  of  course,  follow  that  we  to-day  may  not  be 


SAUL'S  VISION  OF  JESUS  55 

filled  with  the  Holy  Spirit  for  service  save  by  the  ac- 
companiment of  miracles  and  at  the  hands  of  others. 
But  it  is  a  point  on  which  later  Saul  will  insist  that  his 
apostleship  is  wholly  independent  of  that  of  the  Twelve. 
They  imparted  nothing  to  Saul,  he  is  careful  to  explain 
(Gal.  2  :  6  f.).  When  he  consciously  receives  his  sight, 
he  looks  up  joyfully  to  Ananias  who  had  brought  him 
this  blessing  (Acts  22 :  13). 

The  baptism  of  Saul,  likewise,  calls  for  a  few  words. 
So  far  as  the  record  indicates,  there  was  no  meeting  of 
the  disciples  in  Damascus,  if  indeed  a  church  had  been 
already  organized  there.  It  seems  to  be  a  meeting 
between  only  Ananias  and  Saul  at  the  home  of  Judas. 
There  would  be  no  diflficulty  about  the  baptism,  since 
the  Jews,  like  other  Orientals,  had  bathing  facilities 
in  the  court.  But  the  fact  that  Saul  submitted  to  the 
usual  rite  without  protest  shows  how  normally  baptism 
followed  conversion.  The  use  of  "wash  away  thy 
sins,"  in  Acts  22 :  16,  in  connection  with  "baptize," 
cannot  properly  be  insisted  on  as  teaching  baptismal 
salvation,  since  the  Oriental  symbolism  often  put  the 
symbol  to  the  forefront  in  descriptions  when,  as  a  matter 
of  fact,  the  experience  preceded  the  symbol  in  order  of 
time.  We  know,  in  fact,  that  this  was  the  case  here,  for 
Saul  not  only  was  already  converted,  but  had  received 
the  Holy  Spirit  before  his  baptism  (Acts  9 :  17  f.). 
Saul  now  took  food  and  was  strengthened. 

7.  The  Call  to  a  World  Mission. — Jesus  had  told 
Saul  that  he  would  be  told  in  Damascus  what  it  was 


56  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

appointed  for  him  to  do.  He  knew  full  well  what  he 
had  given  up  in  choosing  Jesus  as  Lord  and  Saviour. 
He  had  suffered  the  loss  of  all  things  (of.  Phil.  3  : 4-9). 
He  gave  up  all  that  he  held  dear,  pride  of  race,  family, 
creed,  position,  fame,  leadership.  These  he  will  come 
to  count  loss  for  Christ,  and  he  will  not  complain.  He 
is  indeed  a  new  man  in  Christ  Jesus  with  a  new  world 
outlook  (II  Cor.  5  :  17).  But  Ananias  was  charged  with 
a  new  commission  from  Jesus,  to  take  the  place  of  the 
papers  from  the  Sanhedrin.  Jesus  had  assured  Ananias 
that  Saul  of  Tarsus,  strange  as  it  might  seem,  was 
a  "vessel  of  choice"  for  him.  God  goes  to  strange 
places  for  his  agents:  to  the  wilderness  for  John,  to  the 
despised  Nazareth  for  the  Messiah,  to  the  fishermen 
and  the  publicans  for  the  Apostles,  to  the  jail  for  the 
dreamer,  to  the  cobbler's  bench  for  the  great  mission- 
ary, to  the  priest  for  a  revolutionist  against  the  papacy, 
to  the  ringleader  of  the  Pharisees  for  the  spiritual 
emancipator  of  Jew  and  Gentile.  This  quondam  leader 
of  an  inquisition  is  to  bear  the  name  of  Jesus  be- 
fore Gentiles,  kings,  and  the  children  of  Israel  (Acts 
9 :  15). 

Ananias  is  able  to  explain  to  Saul  why  Jesus  has 
called  him,  how  "the  God  of  our  fathers  hath  appointed 
thee  to  know  his  will,  and  to  see  the  Righteous  One,  and 
to  hear  a  voice  from  his  mouth.  For  thou  shalt  be 
a  witness  unto  all  men  of  what  thou  hast  seen  and 
heard"  (Acts  22  :  14  f.).  Thus,  in  few  words,  that 
Saul  never  forgot,  he  hears  his  destiny  proclaimed. 


SAUL'S  VISION  OF  JESUS  57 

As  he  recites  it  elsewhere  (Acts  26  :  18),  he  is  to  open 
the  eyes  of  the  Gentiles,  just  as  his  own  have  been 
opened,  to  turn  them  from  darkness  to  light,  that 
Gentiles  as  well  as  Jews  may  receive  remission  of  sins. 
He  is  to  be  a  minister  and  a  witness  of  what  he  has 
seen  and  of  what  he  will  see  (26  :  16).  His  theology 
and  message  will  therefore  be  grounded  in  his  own 
experience.  A  good  part  of  this  experience  is  yet  to 
come  and  he  will  learn  as  he  receives  it,  "for  I  will 
show  him  how  many  things  he  must  suffer  for  my 
name's  sake"  (Acts  9  :  16),  Jesus  said  to  Ananias. 
Fortunately  for  Saul  this  revelation  of  his  sufferings 
was  not  to  come  all  at  once.  The  time  will  come  when 
his  chief  ground  for  glorying  will  be  the  sufferings  that 
he  undergoes  for  Christ  (II  Cor.  11:23-33),  though 
he  could  ultimately  glory  in  other  things  also.  But 
the  point  to  observe  just  here  is  that  Saul  was  not 
drawn  into  the  service  of  Christ  under  a  misapprehen- 
sion of  what  was  before  him.  He  knew  what  he  was 
to  receive  in  .lieu  of  what  he  had  given  up. 

One  need  not  insist,  indeed,  that  Saul  fully  under- 
stood the  significance  of  his  mission  to  the  Gentiles, 
nor  do  we  know  how  largely  that  aspect  of  his  call 
bulked  in  his  mind  at  the  time.  The  work  for  the 
Jews  was  included  also.  The  time  will  come  when,  by 
agreement,  there  will  be  a  delimitation  of  the  work  in 
a  general  way  (Gal.  2:9),  though  it  was  never  meant 
to  be  absolute.  It  always  remained  to  Paul  one  of  the 
mysteries  of  grace  how  Jesus  broke  down  the  middle 


58  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

wall  of  partition  between  Jew  and  Gentile  (Eph.  2  :  4-6), 
and  in  particular  how  to  him,  who  was  less  than  the 
least  of  all  saints,  was  this  grace  given  to  preach  unto 
Gentiles  the  unsearchable  riches  of  Christ  (Eph.  3:8). 
In  this  world-wide  mission  he  came  to  find  the  very  joy 
of  work  for  Christ.  He  rose  to  his  mission  as  God  led 
him  on. 

Saul,  therefore,  had  a  commission  from  Christ  as 
definite  and  clear  as  that  given  to  the  earlier  Chris- 
tians who  likewise  received  it  in  their  capacity  as  indi- 
vidual Christians  as  did  Saul.  The  commission  of 
Jesus  to  preach  the  Gospel  to  the  heathen  was  not 
merely  to  the  Apostles,  but  was  given  to  all  Christians. 
Not  preachers  alone  have  this  obligation,  but  members 
of  the  body  of  Christ  have  the  burden  of  sending  the 
Gospel  to  all  the  world.  This  burden  was  rolled  upon 
Saul  at  the  start. 

But  more  than  this  is  true,  though  all  phases  of  it 
do  not  come  out  here.  Saul  is  called  to  be  an  inde- 
pendent Apostle  to  the  Gentiles.  This  independence 
he  will  later  have  reason  to  insist  upon  when  his 
apostleship  itself  is  challenged  by  the  Judaizers.  In 
Gal.  1  and  2  he  makes  a  formal  defence  of  his  apostle- 
ship as  he  does  with  even  more  passion  in  II  Cor. 
10-13.  He  will  work  in  harmony  with  the  other  Apos- 
tles (Acts  15:22;  Gal.  2:6-10),  though  on  occasion 
he  will  resist  Peter  to  the  face  (Gal.  2  :  11-21).  It  is 
purely  gratuitous  for  one  to  say,  as  does  Baring  Gould/ 
'  "A  Study  of  St.  Paul,"  p.  83. 


SAUL'S  VISION  OF  JESUS  59 

that  Saul  did  not  know  till  fourteen  years  after  his 
conversion  that  he  was  to  go  to  the  Gentiles.  Such 
juggling  with  the  sources  is  wearisome.  Not  only  was 
the  call  to  go  to  the  Gentiles  clear  at  first,  but  it  was 
repeated  at  Jerusalem  (Acts  22  :  21)  a  few  years  later. 
Paul  was  always  distinctly  conscious  that  he  had  re- 
ceived this  definite  ministry  from  Jesus  himself  (II 
Cor.  5  :  18  f.;  Gal.  1 : 1,  16).  Jesus  had  said  through 
Ananias:  "I  send  thee"  (Acts  26  :  17).  Though  he 
was  not  one  of  the  Twelve,  he  was  an  Apostle  in  the 
real  sense.  He  had  seen  "Jesus  our  Lord"  (I  Cor. 
9:1).  He  had  received  his  apostleship  directly  from 
Christ  (Gal.  1  : 1,  11  f.).  Ananias  baptized  him  and 
conveyed  to  him  the  message  of  Jesus,  but  he  did  not 
get  his  apostolic  authority  from  Ananias.  It  was  a 
comfort  to  Paul  that,  as  a  rule,  the  Gentiles  were  loyal 
to  him  as  the  Apostle  of  Christ  (I  Cor.  9:2).  He 
had  the  seal  of  his  apostleship  in  the  conversion  of  the 
Gentiles. 

Paul's  Epistles  are  full  of  expression  of  his  fidelity 
to  the  call  of  Jesus.  He  tried  to  heed  the  voice  of 
Jesus.  He  felt  a  woe  upon  him  if  he  did  not  preach 
the  gospel  of  Christ  (I  Cor.  9  :  16).  He  felt  himself 
the  ambassador  of  Christ  (II  Cor.  5  :  20).  He  never 
felt  that  he  had  succeeded  as  he  could  have  wished 
(Phil.  3  :  13))  yet  it  was  his  constant  aim  to  realize 
Christ's  ideal  about  him,  to  "lay  hold  of  that  for  which 
also  I  was  laid  hold  on  by  Christ  Jesus"  (verse  12). 
If  his  office  as  Apostle  is  grounded  more  in  the  inter- 


60  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

nal  revelation  of  Christ  in  him  (Gal.  1  :  12,  16)/  yet 
it  was  far  more  than  merely  internal  in  its  basis.  If  it 
was  pneumatiqiie  and  mystique,  it  was  also  historique 
and  traditioncdiste  (Heinrich  Bruders)  in  one  sense  only 
of  traditional,  however.  But  the  historic  and  the  spir- 
itual aspects  of  SauFs  mission  were  always  clear  to  him. 
God  gave  him  all  the  signs  of  the  Apostle  (II  Cor.  12  :  12) 
and  in  truth  as  to  authority  and  work  he  was  not  one 
whit  behind  the  chief  est  Apostles  (II  Cor.  11  : 5).  But 
he  was  not  merely  an  oJQficial  Apostle,  he  was  also  and 
mainly  preacher  and  teacher  of  Christ  Jesus  (I  Tim. 
2:7;  II  Tim.  1  :  11). 

8.  Saul's  Immediate  Response  to  His  Call. — ^We 
must  remember  that  Saul  is  already  under  the  guidance 
of  the  Holy  Spirit.  The  Spirit  of  Jesus  will  block  his 
way  (Acts  16 : 7)  as  well  as  direct  him  where  to  go 
(13 : 2  f.).  It  is  not  possible  to  think  of  the  restless 
Saul  as  idle  in  Damascus.  His  first  experience  as  a 
preacher  of  Jesus  was  at  Damascus  (Acts  26 :  20). 
The  circumstances  were  not  particularly  auspicious. 
"And  all  that  heard  him  were  amazed,  and  said,  Is 
not  this  he  that  in  Jerusalem  made  havoc  of  them  that 
called  on  this  name?"  (Acts  9 :  21).  The  Jews  them- 
selves would  regard  Saul  as  a  renegade  and  a  turncoat. 
The  disciples  could  not  help  being  suspicious.  Was 
this  a  genuine  conversion  ?    Would  it  hold  out  ?    Why 

*  Neander,  "  Planting  of  Christianity,"  Vol.,  I.,  p.  86.  Cf .  ^^  ^f^i 
also  in  I  Cor.  4  :  11.  Thackeray,  "Relation  of  St.  Paul  to  Con- 
temporary Jewish  Thought,"  p.  8,  suggests  that  this  may  mean 
"in  my  spirit,"  but  "in  my  case"  is  probably  the  true  idea. 


SAUL'S  VISION  OF  JESUS  61 

had  he  changed  his  position?  What  was  his  motive 
in  it  all  ?  They  had  abundant  ground  for  their  amaze- 
ment. 

It  was  a  new  experience  for  Saul.  Never  was  a  first 
sermon  a  greater  cause  for  embarrassment.  No  doubt 
Saul's  voice  sounded  strange  to  himself  as  he  heard 
it  proclaiming  "Jesus,  that  he  is  the  Son  of  God" 
(Acts  9  :  20).  That  was  a  new  note,  one  that  he  had 
never  struck  before.  He  did  not  know  a  great  deal 
of  Christian  theology.  He  had,  indeed,  heard  Stephen 
and  others  preach  Jesus.  But  he  keeps  close  to  shore 
in  this  first  discourse.  He  preached  what  he  had 
learned  from  his  own  experience.  That  is  the  basis 
of  SauFs  theology.  He  was  able  to  identify  Jesus 
with  the  Son  of  God.  He  had  grasped  at  the  start  the 
humanity  and  the  deity  of  Jesus.  All  the  great  super- 
structure of  his  future  teaching  will  rest  on  this  basis. 
He  knows  by  experience  that  Jesus  is  the  Messiah  of 
the  Jews  (verse  22). 

His  preaching  was  powerful  at  first.  He  was  indeed 
already  a  man  of  education.  He  did  not  need  to  learn 
how  to  think  nor  how  to  speak.  He  is  a  master  in 
speech  by  training  and  experience.  So  long  as  he  con- 
fined himself  to  what  he  knew  about  Jesus  he  was  on 
safe  ground.  One  can  well  imagine  the  commotion 
that  his  advocacy  of  Christianity  created  among  both 
Jews  and  disciples  in  Damascus.  It  would  seem  as 
if  the  Jews  made  reply  to  his  onset,  but  were  *' con- 
founded" as  completely  as  Saul  had  once  been  by 


62  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

Stephen.  The  resistance  to  SauFs  main  position  put 
him  on  his  mettle.  He  was  no  longer  a  mere  theological 
hair-splitter.  The  days  of  quibbling  had  gone  forever. 
He  had  had  a  great  experience  that  could  never  be 
taken  from  him.  Already  he  knew  him  whom  he  had 
beHeved  (II  Tim.  1  :  12).*  He  would  as  soon  doubt 
his  own  existence  as  doubt  that  he  had  seen  Jesus. 
Hence  Saul  grew  in  strength  by  practice  in  speech. 
Opposition  roused  him.  He  had  a  new  passion  that 
had  never  before  gripped  his  soul.  He  could  under- 
stand better  how  Stephen  had  been  so  masterful  and 
mighty. 

The  persecution  in  its  organized  form  had  collapsed. 
It  went  down  with  the  loss  of  its  head.  The  church  will 
soon  have  peace  (Acts  9  :  31).  Meanwhile  Saul  him- 
self is  the  victim  of  resentful  hate  on  the  part  of  the 
Jews  in  Damascus.  He  has  to  face  the  question  of 
going  on  in  spite  of  their  opposition,  or  returning  to 
Jerusalem,  or  of  retiring  to  a  strange  region  for  a  while. 
There  was  nothing  in  Jerusalem  to  draw  him  now. 
Damascus  was  in  a  turmoil.  It  was  time  for  him  to 
take  stock  of  his  situation  and  see  exactly  how  it  was 
with  him.  Events  had  moved  so  rapidly  with  him.  He 
had  taken  his  stand  for  Christ.  All  the  world  would 
now  know  where  he  stood. 

9.  The  Apologetic  Value  of  SauVs  Conversion. — If 
we  leave  the  personal  aspects  of  this  great  event,  we 

*"HiB  whole  theology  is  nothing  but  the  explication  of  his 
own  conversion." — Stalker,  "Life  of  St.  Paul,"  p.  45. 


SAUL'S  VISION  OF  JESUS  63 

still  have  the  effect  of  the  change  in  Saul  on  Judaism 
and  on  Christianity.  As  for  Judaism,  it  is  not  merely 
the  collapse  of  the  persecution  that  followed.  There 
was  much  more.  The  whole  situation  was  at  once 
changed  and  Judaism  was  put  on  the  defensive.  The 
time  will  come  when  Judaism  will  rally  again  and  turn 
on  Paul  with  a  vehemence  and  vengeance  that  will 
seem  all  too  familiar  to  him  (Acts  22  : 3-5).  But  for 
the  present  Saul  had  turned  round  and  was  preaching 
that  they  should  repent  and  turn  to  God,  doing  works 
worthy  of  repentance  (Acts  26  :  20),  a  proceeding 
exactly  in  line  with  that  of  John  the  Baptist,  of  Jesus, 
and  of  Stephen. 

But  it  is  Christianity  itself  that  receives  the  greatest 
impact  from  this  reversal  in  Saul's  position.  For  one 
thing  a  new  Apostle  is  gained  on  a  par  with  the  Twelve 
who  will  be  an  independent  witness  of  the  resurrection 
of  Christ  which  is  the  fundamental  proposition  of 
apostolic  Christianity.  He  is  not  only  the  most  brilliant 
young  Jew  of  his  time,  but  is  thoroughly  equipped  in 
Jewish  theology  and  methods  of  discussion.  His 
Roman  citizenship  and  Hellenistic  affiliations  in  Tar- 
sus made  him  cosmopolitan  in  sympathy.  He  is  an 
Apostle  of  a  new  type  and  will  be  able  to  preach  Jesus 
to  both  Jew  and  Gentile  throughout  the  Grseco-Roman 
world.  It  will  be  small  wonder  if  he  becomes  the  chief 
personal  force  in  Christianity,  next  to  his  Lord  and 
Master. 

It  is  hard  to  overestimate  the  apologetic  value  of 


64  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

Saul's  conversion  to  modern  Christianity.  The  op- 
ponents of  Christianity  have  always  perceived  that 
the  resurrection  of  Jesus  and  SauFs  conversion  were 
the  two  great  historical  pillars  that  had  to  be  overthrown. 
For  this  purpose  every  form  of  attack  known  to  crit- 
icism has  been  resorted  to,  verbal  disagreements, 
mythological  parallels,  scientific  difficulties.  Even  the 
existence  of  Saul  as  an  historical  personage  has  been 
denied  by  the  Dutch  scholar  Van  Manen.  Baur's 
admission  of  the  four  great  Epistles  (I  Cor.,  II  Cor., 
Gal.,  Rom.)  left  the  real  problems  of  Jesus  and  Paul 
just  where  they  were  before.  In  these  very  Epistles 
he  repeatedly  and  pointedly  asserts  the  fact  of  the  resur- 
rection of  Jesus,  a  matter  known  to  him  by  personal 
experience.  It  was  necessary  either  to  overturn  these 
Epistles  as  genuine  works  of  Paul,  to  find  some  other 
interpretation  of  his  language  or  some  defect  in  Saul's 
mental  or  moral  endowment,  or  to  accept  Saul's  testi- 
mony. The  attempt  has  boldly  been  made  to  eliminate 
Paul's  Epistles  entirely  along  with  the  Acts  of  the  Apos- 
tles. It  is  now  possible  to  say  positively  that  this  at- 
tempt has  failed.  On  the  other  hand,  the  majority 
of  modem  critics  accept  as  genuine  more  Epistles  of 
Paul  than  Baur  did.  But  the  acknowledgment  of 
these  Epistles  as  genuine  makes  it  impossible  to  make 
a  successful  onslaught  on  Saul's  integrity  of  mind  or 
heart.  The  same  moral  passion  blazes  here  that  was 
once  turned  against  Jesus.  A  wonderful  mental  clear- 
ness shines  in  Paul's  writings  that  paralyzes  any  at- 


SAUL'S  VISION  OF  JESUS  65 

tempt  to  make  Saul  appear  a  fool  or  a  weakling.  But 
to  cease  to  try  to  find  some  weakness  in  SauFs  armor 
would  be  to  admit  his  account  of  his  conversion  and 
the  tremendous  corollary  that  goes  with  it,  the  resur- 
rection of  Jesus  and  the  truthfulness  of  Christianity. 

The  battle  will  never  cease  to  rage  around  the  ques- 
tion of  Saul's  conversion  so  long  as  Christianity  has  a 
voice  raised  against  it.  But  SauFs  judgment  about 
the  resurrection  of  Jesus  was  an  historical  judgment 
based  on  his  own  experience  in  seeing  Jesus  and  cannot 
be  lightly  brushed  aside  as  a  mere  "wonder,"  as  Strauss 
does  in  his  "Leben  Jesu."  One  has  no  right  to  say 
that  Saul  was  out  of  his  body  on  this  occasion  as  he 
was  later  at  Tarsus  (II  Cor.  12  : 2-5).  He  did  not 
tell  what  he  heard  at  Tarsus.  He  never  ceased  telling 
what  he  saw  and  heard  on  the  road  to  Damascus. 
Holsten's  effort  to  explain  Saul's  vision  of  Jesus  on 
purely  naturahstic  grounds  is  not  successful.^  Saul 
not  only  dared  everything  for  the  new  faith  that  was 
in  him,  but  it  is  impossible  to  believe  that  this  high 
allegiance  was  due  to  an  illusion.  Of  all  the  men  of 
his  time  he  shows  spiritual  sanity  and  insight.  The 
very  wealth  of  Paul's  view  of  Jesus  gives  much  trouble 
to  the  merely  naturalistic  theologian.^  The  direct  testi- 
mony of  Saul  to  Jesus  is  not  seriously  impaired  by 
the  attacks  of  Steck  and  Loman.     Even  Renan*  calls 

»  "Zum  Evangelium  des  Paulus  und  Petrus,"  (1868);   "Das 
Evangelium  des  Paulus  Dargestellt"  (1880). 
»  Weizsacker,  "Das  Apostol.  Zeitalter,"  etc.,  S.  120. 
'  Les  Apotres. 


66  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

Gal.  1  and  2  "les  deux  pages  les  plus  importantes 
pour  r^tude  du  Christianisme  naissant,"  and  Pfleiderer^ 
compares  Paul  to  Luther  in  the  boldness  of  his  stand 
for  Christ  and  its  great  results.  Even  a  sorcerer  could 
see  that  there  was  some  vital  relation  between  Paul  and 
the  Jesus  whom  he  preached  (Acts  19  :  13,  15).  Saul 
stood  forth  in  defence  of  Christ  against  Jew  and  Gen- 
tile. He  stands  still  a  tower  of  strength,  a  bulwark 
that  cannot  be  moved.  SauPs  career  makes  it  easier 
for  modern  men  to  believe  in  Jesus  of  Nazareth.  If 
one  thinks  that  the  experience  of  Paul  is  so  peculiar 
as  to  rob  it  of  evidential  value,  he  must  remember  that 
Saul  was  a  religious  genius  of  the  highest  order  and 
just  the  man  to  have  and  to  interpret  such  an  experi- 


» "Urcliristenthum,"  S.  1534. 

'  Sanday,  Art.  Paul  in  Hastings'  "  Dictionary  of  Christ  and 
the  Gospels." 


CHAPTER  IV 

SAUL  LEARNING  CHRISTUNITY 

"That  I  may  know  him  and  the  power  of  his  resurrec- 
tion" (Phil.  3:10). 

1.  Said's  Jewish  Inheritance. — ^This  is  the  striking 
phrase  of  a  recent  German  writer.*  What  of  his  old 
Judaism  did  Saul  take  with  him  into  Christianity? 
It  is  a  pertinent  inquiry  and  doubtless  Saul  had  a 
battle  over  just  this  matter.  He  was  already  a  Jew- 
ish theologian  of  a  high  order  of  culture.  He  had 
formulated  or  rather  followed  a  definite  theological 
system.  He  had  taken  sides  on  many  minor  points. 
He  was  a  partisan  theologian,  in  a  word  a  Pharisee  of 
the  type  of  Gamaliel.  He  was  so  fierce  a  rabbi  that 
he  had  believed  in  persecuting  those  who  disputed  the 
tenets  of  Pharisaism.  But  we  have  already  noted 
that  he  was  also  familiar  with  the  apocalyptic  teaching 
of  the  time.  He  uses  in  his  Epistles  later  both  the 
rabbinical  and  the  apocalyptic  methods  of  discussion, 
and  naturally  so  for  they  were  the  current  methods  in 
vogue  among  the  Jews.^    But  Sanday'  well  observes 

'  K6hler,  "Zum  Verstandnis  des  Ap.  Paulua"  (1908),  S.  2. 

'  On  the  place  of  eschatology  and  the  apocalyptic  form  in 
Paul's  religious  thought,  see  chapter  I  in  Kennedy's  "  St.  Paul's 
Conceptions  of  Last  Things."  The  Jew  of  the  first  century 
A.D.  did,  indeed,  have  some  alien  influences  on  him.  He  had 
passed  through  Egyptian,  Babylonian,  Persian,  Greek  rule.  It 
would  have  been  a  marvel  if  no  trace  of  that  fact  were  apparent. 

» Art.  Paul,  in  Hastings'  "D.  C.  G." 
67 


68  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

that  Paul  rose  above  these  methods  very  largely  and 
saw  spiritual  realities.  In  particular  is  this  noticeable 
in  his  use  of  the  Old  Testament.  With  the  average 
rabbi  the  comment  on  the  Old  Testament  was  more 
important  than  the  Scripture  itself.  But  this  was  not 
true  of  Paul.  He  knew  the  Old  Testament  and  he 
will  come  to  get  at  the  heart  of  the  Scriptures  even 
though  his  method  will  at  times  be  rabbinical  or  apoc- 
alyptic. But  the  right  result  is  far  more  important 
than  the  mere  method  of  argument.  There  was  much 
in  this  body  of  Jewish  theology  that  Saul  did  not  have 
to  surrender.  The  great  spiritual  realities  about  God 
and  man  remained  the  same.  In  the  matters  of  dis- 
pute between  Pharisees  and  Sadducees  Saul  remained 
a  Pharisee,  and  on  occasion  could  say  so  (Acts  23  : 6), 
especially  on  the  point  of  the  resurrection. 

But  one  must  not  go  to  the  extreme  of  finding  in 
Saul's  Pharisaism  the  roots  of  all  his  Christian  the- 
ology. Pfleiderer^  even  traces  Paul's  doctrine  of 
justification  by  faith  to  his  Pharisaic  notions!  One 
could  hardly  go  further  astray,  for  the  rest  of  Paul's 
life  will  be  spent  in  the  endeavor  to  show  how  hollow 
is  the  Pharisaic  legal  observance  and  how  rich  and 
vital  is  the  grace  of  Christ  in  the  heart  (Rom.  9 :  31). 
Paul  will  indeed  prove  that  Christianity  is  the  real 
Judaism,  the  spiritual  Israel,  the  true  Israel  (Rom. 
2  :  28  f.),  but  he  will  have  to  learn  how  this  is  true. 
This  interpretation  is  the  very  antithesis  of  that  spirit 
1  "Paulinismus,"  S.  12. 


SAUL  LEARNING  CHRISTIANITY  69 

which  was  satisfied  merely  with  being  the  children  of 
Abraham. 

The  Judaism  of  Saul  was  not  that  of  John  the 
Baptist  nor  of  Jesus.  It  was  not  that  of  Philo.  It 
was  really  Palestinian  traditionalism  with  some  out- 
side influences  which  tempered  it  and  modernized  it 
to  some  extent.  But  his  Judaism  was  hard  enough  to 
amalgamate  with  Christianity.  One  has  only  to  con- 
sider the  struggle  that  Peter  had  towards  the  spiritual 
and  universal  aspects  of  Christianity  to  sympathize 
with  SauFs  limitations  on  this  point.  "  He  was  changed 
from  an  anti-Christian  Jew  to  an  anti- Jewish  Chris- 
tian."^ This  is  rather  an  overstatement,  for  he  loved 
the  Jews  still,  but  he  did  oppose  the  current  orthodoxy 
of  the  Pharisees  and  of  the  Judaizers. 

We  know  quite  well  what  the  Pharisaic  notion  of  the 
Messiah  was.  It  is  clear  in  the  background  of  the  Gos- 
pels as  well  as  in  such  books  as  the  Psalms  of  Solomon. 
It  is  not  necessary  to  draw  that  picture  here  in  detail. 
It  is  enough  to  say  that  while  it  had  eschatological 
features  in  some  respects  like  that  drawn  by  John  the 
Baptist  and  Jesus  himself,  at  bottom  it  was  widely 
different.  It  concerned  itself  mainly  with  the  temporal 
side  of  life  and  the  Pharisaic  hope  centred  in  a  de- 
liverer from  the  Roman  yoke  who  would  impose 
Pharisaic  ceremonialism  upon  the  whole  world.  There 
was  terrific  opposition  on  the  part  of  the  Pharisees 

*  Means,  "St.  Paul  and  the  Ante-Nicene  Church,"  p.  6.  Cf. 
Hilgenfeld,  "Zeitschrift  fur  Wiss.  Theol.,"  B.  XVIII.,  S.  162. 


70  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

to  the  programme  of  Jesus  in  his  teaching  of  a  merely 
spiritual  Messiah  who  would  reign  in  the  hearts  of  men, 
and  in  particular  when  that  conception  was  embodied 
in  Jesus  himself  who  had  collided  with  the  Pharisees 
on  various  items  of  their  theology,  such  as  the  Sabbath, 
washing  of  hands,  fasting,  etc.  Saul  inherited  this 
antipathy  to  Jesus  as  the  Messiah  and  was  more 
vindictive  about  it  than  any  other  Pharisee. 

And  yet  God  chose  a  Pharisee/  but  a  Pharisee  who 
had  already  learned  the  emptiness  of  mere  legal  cere- 
mony and  who  could  interpret  that  hoUowness  with 
consummate  skill  after  he  had  learned  more  completely 
the  difference  between  the  letter  and  the  spirit.  He 
was  an  expert  in  religiosity.  He  was  to  learn  the  heart 
of  religion. 

Saul  was  already  a  theologian.  He  brought  the 
theologian's  love  of  order  and  analysis  with  him.  He 
differs  in  the  theological  type  of  mind  not  only  from 
Jesus,  but  also  from  the  other  Apostles  and  New  Testa- 
ment writers.  He  will  naturally  become  the  first 
Christian  theologian.^  Matthew  Arnold  ^  perceives  Paul's 
Judaism  so  clearly  that  he  considers  it  impossible  to 
tell  what  he  really  meant  in  his  Epistles.  This  is  an 
overstatement  surely.  He  did  have  the  "thought- 
forms"  of  his  time  as  every  one  has,  but  the  kernel  is 
not  hard  to  get  out  of  the  hull. 

^Sabatier,  "The  Apostle  Paul,"  p.  69. 

2  Means,  "St.  Paul  and  the  Ante-Nicene  Church,"  p.  3. 

^  "St.  Paul  and  Protestantism,"  p.  23. 


SAUL  LEARNING  CHRISTIANITY  71 

As  already  indicated,  Saul  was  able  to  bring  over  the 
heart  of  Judaism  to  his  Christianity.  His  Christianity 
will  be  rooted  in  his  Judaism.  In  this  he  will  not  differ 
from  Jesus,  his  new  Master,  who  in  the  Sermon  on  the 
Mount  carefully  explains  how  his  teaching  seized  the 
spirit  of  the  Old  Testament  and  realized  that  ideal 
while  it  was  in  opposition  to  some  of  the  current  in- 
terpretations and  additions.  Saul,  though  he  has 
undergone  a  revolution  in  his  whole  mental  make-up, 
never  felt  that  he  had  deserted  the  true  Judaism  of 
Abraham,  Moses,  David,  Isaiah.  He  longed  to  lead 
all  Jews  into  the  full  fruition  of  their  hopes.  But  the 
apprehension  of  this  point  of  view  lies  in  the  future 
with  Saul.  He  will  admit  that  Jesus  himself  was  born 
under  the  law.* 

2.  Savins  Greek  Inheritance. — Did  Saul  have  af- 
finities with  the  Hellenism  of  his  time  ?  The  question 
is  hotly  debated  and  has  already  been  alluded  to  in 
this  book.  Sabatier,^  for  instance,  says  pointedly  that 
"to  seek  the  origin  of  Paul's  Christian  universalism 
in  his  Hellenism  is,  therefore,  manifestly  an  entire 
mistake."  Pfleiderer^  even  charges  that  Paul  has 
"rabbinized"  Christ  and  hence  has  obscured  Jesus 
instead  of  revealing  him.  On  the  other  hand.  Rabbi 
Kohler*  asserts  that  Paul  was  a  Hellenist  and  no  real 

>  Hilgenfeld,  "Zeitschrift  fur  Wiss.  Th."  (1894),  S.  510. 

*  "The  Apostle  Paul,"  p.  69. 

^ "  Influence  of  Paul  on  the  Development  of  Christianity  "  (1885). 

*  Article  Saul  of  Tarsus,  "Jewish  Encycl."  So  Fraedlaender, 
"Reliog.  Beweg"  ('05),  rather  overdoes  the  Hellenistic  side 
of  Paul. 


72  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

Jew  like  Jesus!  Paul,  indeed,  changed  the  whole 
character  and  course  of  Christianity,  for  Jesus  had  no 
notion  of  a  break  with  Judaism.  **Paul  fashioned  a 
Christ  of  his  own,  a  Church  of  his  own,  and  a  system 
of  behef  of  his  own;  and  because  there  were  many 
mythological  and  gnostic  elements  in  his  theology 
which  appealed  more  to  the  non-Jew  than  to  the  Jew, 
he  won  the  heathen  world  to  his  belief."  The  truth  is 
between  these  two  extremes. 

As  a  Hellenistic  Jew  of  Tarsus,  Saul  had  been  open 
to  the  best  things  in  Greek  culture  without  any  for- 
feiture of  his  Pharisaic  loyalty.^  There  has,  indeed, 
been  no  such  blending  of  Judaism  and  Hellenism  as 
we  find  in  Philo  of  Alexandria,  nor  indeed  later  in  the 
Grecized  Christianity  of  Clement  of  Alexandria. 
Ramsay^  has  shown  us  the  right  way  in  this  matter 
when  he  asserts  that  it  was  a  universalized  Hellenism 
and  a  universalized  Judaism  that  coalesced  in  the  mind 
of  Paul.  He  stoutly  objects  to  Harnack's  view  that 
Paul's  mind  was  wholly  Jewish.  He  was  mainly  so 
beyond  a  doubt.  Kennedy^  well  shows  PauFs  knowl- 
edge of  the  Greek  ideas  of  flesh  and  spirit,  not  to  say 
other  psychological  terms.  Many  arguments  go  to 
show  the  possibility  of  Paul's  acquaintance  with  the 
Book  of  the  Wisdom  of  Solomon,  which  had  undoubted 
influence  from  the  Greek  philosophy.*    The  similarity 

»  Hicks,  "St.  Paul  and  Hellenism,"  Vol.  IV.,  in  "Studia  Bibl. 
et  Eccl."  '  "The  Cities  of  St.  Paul,"  p.  43. 

^  "St.  Paul's  Conceptions  of  Last  Things,"  p.  343  ff. 

*  Cf.  Menzel,  "Der  Griech.  Einfluss  auf  Prediger  und  Weisheit 
Salomos"  (1889). 


SAUL  LEARNING  CHRISTIANITY  73 

in  idea  and  phraseology  between  Paul  and  Seneca  has 
often  received  discussion  as  by  Lightfoot,  in  his  "  Com- 
mentary on  Philippians."  The  real  explanation  is 
probably  due  to  the  fact  that  both  Paul  and  Seneca 
drank  from  the  same  fountain  of  Greek  philosophy/ 
If  Gamaliel,  for  diplomatic  purposes,  could  read 
Greek  writers,  his  pupil  could  easily  follow  suit.  One 
need  only  mention  further  PauFs  use  of  "knowledge" 
and  "wisdom"  to  see  a  real  Greek  influence.  There 
is,  besides,  a  Greek  clarity  of  mental  vision  which  at 
times  reminds  one  of  Plato.^  If  one  wonders  how  a 
Pharisee  could  ever  have  any  contact  with  Greek 
culture  after  the  days  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  he  may 
recall  two  things.  One  is  that  the  Maccabees  them- 
selves came  to  be  called  Philhellenes  (cf.  Aristobulus) 
after  the  breach  with  the  Pharisees.  The  other  is  that 
Saul  had  lived  in  Tarsus,  not  Jerusalem.  If  God 
called  a  Pharisee,  he  also  called  one  who  could  speak 
on  Mars  Hill  and  to  the  Greek  world  of  his  time. 
Modem  life  is  chiefly  a  blend  of  the  Jewish  contribution 
to  religion,  the  Greek  contribution  to  culture,  and  the 
Roman  contribution  to  government.  All  jthese  streams 
had  already  met  in  Saul. 

I  do  not  enter  into  the  discussion  of  Saul's  contact 
with    the    Babylonian    and    Persian    mythology    and 

*  Ramsay,  "Cities  of  St.  Paul,"  p.  34.  Cf.  also  Fraedlaender, 
"Der  religiosen  Bewegungen  innerhalb  des  Judentums,"  etc., 
v.,  "Die  Botschaft  des  Paulus." 

»  Cf.  Kohler,  "Zum  Verstandnis  des  Apostels  Paulus,"  S.  9-13, 
for  a  brief  discussion  of  Paul's  Greek  inheritance. 


74  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

mysticism.  The  Oriental  cults  all  had  a  foothold  in 
Tarsus.  The  religion  of  Tarsus  was  a  blend  between 
the  Anatolian  and  Greek  ideas/  but  one  cannot  think 
that  Saul  received  any  positive  impress  therefrom.  In 
his  later  years  he  will  be  all  alert  to  preserve  Christian- 
ity from  the  blight  of  incipient  gnosticism,  as  is  apparent 
in  Colossians,  Ephesians  and  the  Pastoral  Epistles.  But 
we  do  not  know  that  as  yet  Saul  had  come  in  contact  with 
this  cult.  Paul  shows  some  knowledge  of  Roman  law^  as 
used  in  the  Grseco-Roman  world  in  his  use  of  the  term 
''  adoption  "  (Rom.  8:15).  " To  the  Jewish  student  and 
the  Greek  cosmopolitan  Paul  there  was  added  the  Ro- 
man gentleman  "  (Findlay,  Paul,  in  Hastings*  "  D.  B.") 

3.  The  Original  Christian  Inheritance  of  Said. — 
Here  again  I  use  a  phrase  of  Kohler.^  What  had  Saul 
added  to  his  Judaism  and  Hellenism  in  lieu  of  what 
he  had  given  up  ?  We  must  not  put  into  this  conception 
what  Saul  later  learned  of  Jesus  either  by  experience, 
revelation  or  from  other  Christians.  His  entire 
system  of  doctrine  "simply  means  the  exposition  of  the 
content  of  his  conversion,  the  systematizing  of  the 
Christophany."*  But  the  "system  of  doctrine"  is  in 
the  future,  when  we  see  him  in  Damascus.  We  do 
not  indeed  know  how  much  he  really  knew  of  the 
message  of  Jesus  to  men.  If,  as  a  boy,  he  had  heard 
Jesus  preach  in  the  temple  at  Jerusalem,  he  gained 

^  Ramsay,  "Cities  of  St.  Paul,"  p.  137  ff.,  discusses  the  religion 
of  Tarsus. 

2  "Zum  Verstandnis  des  Ap.  Paulus,"  S.  13. 
»  Holtzmann,  "N.  T.  Theologie,"  Vol.  II.,  S.  205. 


SAUL  LEARNING  CHRISTIANITY  75 

little  from  that  experience.  If  he  heard  Stephen  in 
the  Cilician  synagogue,  he  would  by  that  time  be  able 
to  get  a  better  idea  of  the  Christian  contention.  One 
can  hardly  imagine  that  he  parleyed  much  with  the 
disciples  whom  he  persecuted.  But  before  the  San- 
hedrin,  if  they  were  all  as  skilful  as  Peter  is  reported  in 
the  Acts  (chs.  2-5)  to  be,  they  may  have  managed  to  get 
in  the  heart  of  their  belief  about  Jesus.  Saul  had  seen 
it  all  with  eyes  of  prejudice  and  hate.  How  much  of 
that  can  he  now  recall  as  he  seeks  to  readjust  himself 
to  the  new  situation  ?  A  reinterpretation^  and  restate- 
ment of  what  he  already  knew  of  Jesus  was  necessary 
in  the  light  of  the  profound  spiritual  experience  of  his 
conversion.  He  "taught  what  he  had  first  felt,  and 
he  verified  his  teaching  by  experience."^  He  was  not 
an  immediate  disciple  of  Jesus,  and  so  came  to  the  inter- 
pretation of  Jesus  from  the  point  of  view  of  Luke  rather 
than  that  of  John.  He  has  seen  the  preexistent 
Christ  as  well  as  the  historical  Jesus,  and  both  con- 
ceptions will  remain  with  him.^  In  this  picture  of 
Christ  he  has  a  standard  by  which  to  test  all  his  future 
thinking.*  He  is  lifted  into  a  mystic  unioa  with  Christ 
which  will  glow  and  warm  his  soul  into  intense  intel- 
lectual activity.^    "He  stands  almost   by   himself   in 

'  Cf.  Means,  "St.  Paul  and  the  Ante-Nicene  Church,"  p.  57. 

2  Sanday,  Paul  in  Hastings'  "D.  C.  G." 

^Drescher,  "Das  Leben  Jesu  bei  Paulus,"S.  107.  Cf.  Stade's 
"Festgruss,"  1900. 

*Titius,  "Der  Paulinismus,"  etc.,  S.  11. 

"Aquelhon,  "L'Homme  Psychique  d'apres  Saint  Paul," 
1898,  p.  63. 


76  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

his  manifestation  of  intellectual  activity."*  What- 
ever else  Saul  did  or  did  not  know  about  Jesus,  he 
knew  the  main  thing  at  the  very  start  of  his  Christian 
career.  Christ  is  henceforth  to  him  the  "Kem  und 
Stem"  of  his  religious  thinking  and  life.^  It  is  a 
wonderful  thing  to  have  a  great  experience  of  grace. 
This  was  the  true  genesis  of  Saul's  Gospel,  the  reve- 
lation of  Christ  in  him  (Gal.  1  :  16).^  One  has  no  right 
to  expect  a  fully  developed  creed  a  few  days  after 
one's  conversion.  We  shall  soon  see  in  Paul's  sermons 
as  reported  by  Luke  in  Acts  how  clearly  he  apprehended 
both  the  historical  Jesus  in  the  main  outlines  of  his  life 
and  the  significance  of  Christ's  life  and  death.  For 
the  moment  he  is  almost  intoxicated  with  the  glory  of 
the  vision  of  Jesus.  He  can  already  see  in  the  light  of 
the  call  to  be  the  Apostle  to  the  Gentiles  the  trend  of 
his  theology.  We  need  not  credit  him  yet  with  full 
knowledge  of  all  that  was  to  come.  Some  day  he  will 
be  "the  Apostle  Kar'i^oxn^i  the  disciple  who  raised  the 
Messianic  faith,  hitherto  but  the  creed  of  a  Jewish 
sect,  to  the  position  of  a  world  religion."*  But  the 
revolution  in  Saul's  theology  has  come.  Hence  it  is 
now  merely  readjustment  and  interpretation. 

4.  The  Years  in  Arabia. — Luke  passes  by  this  part 
of  Saul's  life.  It  is  probably  to  be  inserted  between 
verses  22  and  23  in  Acts  9.     Paul  himself  is  not  re- 

*  Means,  "St.  Paul  and  the  Ante-Nicene  Church,"  p.  2. 
«  Sturm,  "Der  Apostel  Paulus,"  etc.,  S.  5. 
'Sabatier,  "The  Apostle  Paul,"  p.  71. 

*  JueUcher,  "Introduction  to  the  N.  T.,"  p.  45. 


SAUL  LEARNING  CHRISTMNITY  77 

ported  as  mentioning  it  in  Acts  22  and  26.  But  for 
Gal.  1  :  17  f.  we  should  know  nothing  at  all  of  these 
"three  years"  or  less  in  Arabia,  a  lesson  for  those  who 
draw  large  inferences  from  silence.  The  "  three  years" 
include  also  a  second  stay  in  Damascus  on  his  return 
from  Arabia.  They  need  not  be  strictly  full  years,  since 
the  first  and  third  years  may  only  have  been  parts 
of  years.  We  may  conclude,  however,  that  something 
over  twelve  months  at  any  rate  was  spent  in  Arabia 
on  SauFs  sudden  departure  from  Damascus. 

We  do  not  know  what  part  of  Arabia  is  meant, 
since  the  term  was  very  flexible  then  as  now  and 
varied  at  different  periods.  He  may,  indeed,  have 
gone  as  far  south  as  Mount  Sinai,  though  one  cannot 
logically  argue  so  from  the  mention  of  Mount  Sinai  in 
Gal.  4  :  24.  There  might  be  an  appropriateness  in 
the  presence  at  Sinai,  full  of  memories  of  Moses  and 
the  law,  of  one  who  was  to  present  grace  and  faith  as 
the  message  of  the  covenant  antedating  the  law  and 
realized  in  Christ  (Gal.  3  :  17).  But  that  is  idle  con- 
jecture. 

We  are  left  in  ignorance,  besides,  both  its  to  Saul's 
motive  for  going  to  Arabia  and  his  work  there  in  the 
meantime.  He  does  tell  one  thing  in  Gal.  1  :  16 : 
"Straightway  I  conferred  not  with  flesh  and  blood." 
He  did  not  wish  to  talk  with  men  now,  but  with  God. 
One  can  sympathize  with  a  desire  at  such  a  time  to 
get  away  from  the  stress  and  storm  of  Damascus. 
He  would  at  least  be  in  new  scenes  and  among  strangers. 


78  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

He  could  find  desert  places  also  in  Arabia  if  he  wished 
it,  like  John  the  Baptist  and  Moses  long  before.  It  is 
more  than  likely  that  he  did  for  a  while  seek  solitude 
for  meditation  and  reflection.  Jesus  himself  after  his 
baptism  spent  forty  days  in  the  wilderness.  Saul  needed 
some  time  to  see  clearly  his  bearings,  to  commune 
with  God,  to  grasp  more  adequately  the  significance  of 
this  whirlwind  in  his  life.  This  much  seems  certain. 
Whether  in  addition  Saul  also  labored  for  Christ  in 
various  parts  of  Arabia  one  cannot  tell.  If  he  did, 
as  he  himself  says  he  labored  later  in  Tarsus  (Gal.  1:21, 
23),  we  may  conclude  that  he  did  missionary  work 
in  Arabia  also. 

5.  In  Damascus  Again, — Here  Luke  goes  on  with 
the  story  (Acts  9  :  23-25).  One  is  reminded  of  a  similar 
probable  combination  of  the  narrative  in  Acts  15  and 
Gal.  2  concerning  a  visit  of  Paul  to  Jerusalem.  If 
this  arrangement  of  the  story  is  correct,  Paul  spent 
"many  days"  in  Damascus  with  the  result  of  a  plot 
on  the  part  of  the  Jews  to  kill  him.  This  would  have 
come  at  once  if  he  had  not  gone  to  Arabia.  But  the 
anger  of  the  Jews  toward  the  "turncoat"  has  not 
ceased.  Saul  now  knows  how  it  feels  to  be  persecuted. 
He  has  his  first  experience  in  the  very  city  where  he 
had  expected  to  make  a  finish  of  the  business  of  perse- 
cuting the  disciples.  A  very  homely  saying  comes  to 
one's  mind  at  this  point.  We  have  a  proverb  about 
chickens  coming  home  to  roost.  It  is  only  poetic 
justice  after  all. 


SAUL  LEARNING  CHRISTIANITY  79 

It  was  a  delicate  situation  for  Saul,  when  he  learned 
of  the  plot.  He  could,  of  course,  meet  his  fate  like  a 
man  and  a  Christian  as  Stephen  and  others  had  done 
before  him.  He  did  not  lack  courage.  But  was  it 
wise  to  sit  still  and  be  killed?  It  is  a  wise  man  who 
knows  when  to  run  and  when  to  fight.  On  the  whole 
Saul  decided  on  flight.  But  the  gates  were  watched 
day  and  night  and  flight  was  not  easy.  Saul  now  had 
friends  who  devised  a  plan  of  escape.  His  enemies 
had  even  stirred  "the  governor  under  Aretas  the 
King"  of  Arabia  against  Saul  (II  Cor.  11  :  32).  He 
had  known  himself  how  to  get  authority  for  his  ven- 
geance. It  was  not  very  glorious,  but  they  let  him  down 
one  night  through  a  window  in  the  wall  in  a  basket  I 
He  did  not  tarry,  one  may  be  sure.  Thus  Saul  left 
Damascus  for  good,  he  who  had  come  not  over  three 
years  ago  with  blast  of  trumpets  and  papers  from  the 
Sanhedrin.     Where  can  he  go  now  ? 

6.  Said  in  Jericsalem. — He  could  not  be  treated  any 
worse  in  Jerusalem  than  he  had  been  in  Damascus 
Besides  he  must  go  to  Jerusalem  some  day  if  he  was 
not  to  be  a  sort  of  pariah  in  the  ministry.  The  Apostles 
were  there,  and  many  other  disciples  had  come  flocking 
back  to  Jerusalem  after  the  wolf  ceased  ravaging  the 
fold.    To  Jerusalem  then  he  will  go. 

But  he  feels  no  need  of  receiving  the  imprimatur  of 
Peter  or  any  of  the  other  Apostles.  He  is  clear  about 
his  own  call  at  the  hands  of  Jesus  himself.  He  has 
been  baptized.    He  has  received  the  special  gift  of  the 


80  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

Holy  Spirit  with  the  laying  on  of  hands.  Still,  while 
he  did  not  need  or  desire  any  apostolic  ordination  at 
the  hands  of  those  who  had  been  Apostles  before  him 
(Gal.  1  :  17),  he  did  owe  a  courtesy  to  those  noble  men 
chosen  also  by  Jesus  himself  to  push  on  the  work  of 
the  Kingdom.  He  was  free  from  jealousy.  He  wished 
to  cooperate  with  them. 

It  would  be  pleasant  to  relieve  their  minds  of  any 
uncertainty  about  him  that  might  linger.  In  particular 
he  would  like  to  pay  his  respects  to  Cephas,  the  leading 
spirit  among  them.  What  thoughts  must  have  filled 
his  mind  as  he  retraced  his  steps  to  Jerusalem?  Did 
he  go  back  over  the  same  road  by  which  he  had  come 
three  years  before  ?  If  so,  he  passed  the  very  spot,  the 
never-to-be-forgotten  spot,  where  he  had  seen  Jesus 
face  to  face.    That  was  henceforth  his  holy  place. 

Once  in  Jerusalem  one  can  well  imagine  that  he  would 
be  shy  of  approaching  or  seeing  his  old  associates. 
The  scorn  of  Gamaliel  would  be  terrible  to  face.  Still 
harder  to  bear  would  be  the  sneers  of  the  lesser  men 
who  had  once  looked  up  to  Saul  as  leader  and  hero. 
There  was  only  one  thing  to  do.  He  must  go  right 
to  the  disciples  themselves  and  tell  his  story  to  them. 
Would  they  believe  him  ?  Did  he  first  attend  a  public 
meeting  of  the  disciples  ?  If  so,  he  noticed  a  peculiar 
dread  of  him.  There  was  suspicion  in  the  very  at- 
mosphere. "They  were  afraid  of  him,  not  believing 
that  he  was  a  disciple"  (Acts  9  :  26).  Could  one  well 
blame  them?    True,  he  now  said  that  he  was  a  fol- 


SAUL  LEARNING  CHRISTIANITY  81 

lower  of  Jesus  and  he  had  taken  a  stand  for  Chiist- 
at  Damascus,  so  a  few  reported.  But  all  men  knew 
what  he  had  done  to  believers  right  here  in  Jerusalem. 
Can  the  leopard  change  his  spots  ? 

Barnabas  was  apparently  at  the  meeting.  Barnabas 
was  from  the  island  of  Cyprus  and  so  a  Hellenist. 
He  was  somehow  convinced  of  the  sincerity  of  SauFs 
conversion,  though  no  one  else  was.  It  is  a  heroic 
thing  to  take  a  stand  by  an  unpopular  man.  Barnabas 
championed  the  cause  of  Saul,  and  became  the  one 
friend  that  Saul  now  had  in  Jerusalem,  where  once  his 
word  was  almost  law.  Barnabas  took  him  straight 
to  the  Apostles  who  were  in  town  (Acts  9  :  27).  As 
a  matter  of  fact,  Paul  himself  declares  that  he  saw  only 
Cephas  and  James,  the  Lord's  brother,  who  was  not 
an  Apostle  in  the  technical  sense  (Gal.  1  :  18  f.).  Now 
that  the  persecution  had  ceased,  the  rest  had  probably 
gone  on  mission  work  among  the  Jews  in  various  parts 
of  the  world.  Barnabas  tells  these  two  the  essential 
parts  of  Saul's  story,  viz.,  his  vision  of  Jesus  in  the 
way,  the  message  of  Jesus  to  Saul  or  his  call,  the  bold 
preaching  of  Saul  in  Damascus  (Acts  9  :  27).  It  was 
enough.  He  had  come  primarily  to  visit  (become  ac- 
quainted with,  la-Toprja-aL,  Gal.  1  :  18)  Cephas.  Now 
for  fifteen  days  he  had  that  privilege.  He  went  in  and 
out  freely  with  Peter,  James,  and  other  disciples.  It 
is  pleasant  to  think  of  Peter  and  Paul  here  together 
for  two  weeks  in  Jerusalem.  Paul  would  naturally 
be  the  learner  and  let  Peter  tell  the  history  of  Jesus 


82  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

in  particular  as  it  was  connected  with  Jerusalem. 
There  was  Bethany;  here  was  the  road  of  the  Triumph- 
ant Entry,  down  there  was  Gethsemane,  where  Peter 
went  to  sleep;  here  Jesus  was  arrested;  at  this  place  the 
trial  took  place  and  just  here  Peter  had  denied  him; 
and  on  yonder  hill  they  crucified  him;  and  in  that 
tomb  they  buried  him;  lo!  here  was  the  spot  where 
Jesus  had  appeared  to  Peter  after  his  resurrection; 
in  this  upper  room  he  had  appeared  to  the  disciples 
twice;  up  here  on  Olivet  was  the  place  where  they  had 
caught  the  last  glimpse  of  him  as  he  went  up  on  the 
cloud.  And  Saul  had  seen  him  since  then.  These 
great  spirits  held  high  converse  with  each  other  about 
Jesus.  Each  was  the  richer  for  the  visit  of  Saul. 
Saul  now  had  in  simple  outline  at  least  the  original 
apostolic  gospel.  He  knew  the  leading  facts,  the 
cardinal  events,  in  the  earthly  life  of  Jesus.  He  had 
heard  Peter  preach  in  all  likelihood  during  this  time. 
That  was  worth  much. 

And  Saul  had  to  preach  himself.  How  could  he  help 
it  after  all  these  new  experiences  ?  The  people  wished 
now  to  hear  him.  Once  he  had  opposed  Stephen 
(so  it  seems)  in  the  Cilician  synagogue.  He  will  go 
to  this  very  synagogue  and  seek  to  undo  some  of  the 
mischief  that  he  had  then  done.  He  will  set  himself 
straight  with  the  Grecian  Jews  for  he  is  one  himself, 
and  they  are  more  open  to  new  truth  than  the  Pales- 
tinian Jews.  Stephen  had  once  had  great  power  with 
these  Hellenists,  but,  alas!  Saul  had  taught  them  how 


SAUL  LEARNING  CHRISTUNITY  83 

to  kill  Stephen  and  other  believers.  They  will  not  hear 
Saul's  new  doctrine.  They  will  turn  his  old  doctrine 
of  persecution  on  himself.  Damascus  had  cast  him 
out  and  now  Jerusalem  will  not  hear  him.  What 
should  he  do?  He  can  pray.  So  in  a  prayer  in  the 
temple  he  falls  into  a  trance,  and,  lo!  he  sees  Jesus  again 
at  his  side.  Jesus  bade  him  leave.  He  can  only 
acquiesce  for  he  recalls  how  in  every  synagogue  he 
had  beaten  those  who  believed  in  Jesus.  They  will 
now  hear  him  in  no  synagogue.  "Depart,"  says  Jesus, 
"for  I  will  send  thee  forth  far  hence  unto  the  Gentiles" 
(Acts  22  :  21).  They  will  hear.  The  brethren  escort 
him  hurriedly  out  of  town  before  the  plot  is  carried  out. 
The  way  looks  dark  for  Saul.  Gone  his  power,  his 
place,  his  friends,  his  fame,  an  outcast  from  Jerusalem! 
Whither  shall  he  now  go  ?  In  Acts  26  :  20  he  speaks 
of  preaching  throughout  all  the  country  of  Judea. 
This  may  have  been  on  his  way  to  Jerusalem,  for  now 
they  sent  him  on  to  Tarsus  (Acts  9  :  30). 

7.  Back  in  Tarsus  Again, — ^A  man  can  always  go 
home.  That  is  one  good  thing.  It  had  probably 
been  a  long  time  since  Saul  had  been  to  Tarsus,  not 
since  the  death  of  Stephen,  several  years  ago.  There 
had  been  changes  in  the  city,  of  course.  Some  people 
had  died,  but  probably  SauFs  father  and  mother  were 
still  living,  loyal  Pharisees  as  of  old.  How  had  they 
regarded  Saul's  change  of  base?  They  must  have 
heard  if  he  had  not  himself  written  about  it,  as  is  likely. 
He  was  fond  of  writing  letters,  as  we  know,  and  it  was 


84  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

easy  to  have  communication  over  the  world,  thanks  to 
the  Roman  order.  But  even  so  he  had  not  seen  them 
since  he  had  gone  over  to  the  side  of  Jesus.  They  had 
taken  pride  in  his  prominence  as  a  leader  of  the  Phari- 
sees. And  now?  He  knew  full  well  what  the  name 
of  Jesus  had  meant  to  them.  What  can  he  say  ?  Let 
us  hope  that  he  received  a  welcome.  He  was  still  their 
son  with  all  his  gifts  and  graces.  He  was  sincere  and 
honest.  His  father  and  mother  knew  that.  He  had 
tried  to  do  right  as  he  saw  it.  Let  us  hope  that  they 
heard  his  story  and  that  they  were  led  to  the  service  of 
Jesus.  That  would  atone  for  his  treatment  in  Da- 
mascus and  Jerusalem. 

We  only  know  one  thing  for  certain.  He  was  not 
idle  during  these  years  at  Tarsus.  He  tells  us  himself 
that  he  preached  in  the  regions  of  Cilicia  and  Syria  and 
that  the  churches  of  Judea,  to  whom  he  was  unknown 
by  face  (save  in  Jerusalem),  heard  of  his  activity  and 
glorified  God  in  him  (Gal.  1  :  21-24).  Saul  found 
pleasure  in  that.  He  was  busy  with  his  work  of  preach- 
ing Christ  in  the  regions  near  Tarsus.  Christ  had 
called  him  to  go  far  hence  to  the  Gentiles.  Mean- 
while there  was  work  at  home.  In  truth  he  was  among 
the  Gentiles  already.  Did  he  preach  to  them?  The 
man  who  will  not  work  for  the  lost  at  home  will  do 
little  for  Christ  abroad. 

We  are  to  think  then  of  Saul  as  working  and  learn- 
ing. He  is  learning  by  doing.  He  continued  to  have 
unusual  experiences.     Christ  did  not  desert  him.     In- 


SAUL  LEARNING  CHRISTIANITY  85 

deed,  during  this  period  (he  only  speaks  of  it  fourteen 
years  afterwards,  II  Cor.  12  : 2)  he  had  a  wonderful 
rapture  to  Paradise  in  the  body  or  out  of  the  body,  he 
cannot  tell.  He  heard  unspeakable  words,  and  they 
will  remain  unuttered  by  him — unlike  "special" 
secrets  with  many.  The  revelations  were  so  great, 
indeed,  that  he  was  in  danger  of  being  exalted  overmuch. 
But  Jesus  blessed  him  in  giving  him  a  thorn  in  the 
flesh.  He  had  prayed  to  him  for  its  removal,  but  in- 
stead he  obtained  grace  to  bear  it,  which  was  better 
(II  Cor.  12  :  9).  One  cannot,  of  course,  tell  the  nature 
of  this  experience.  It  was  a  supernatural  revelation 
of  Christ's  glory.  Nor  do  we  know  the  precise  nature 
of  the  thorn  in  his  flesh.  There  is  special  consolation 
in  our  ignorance,  for  each  can  make  a  personal  appli- 
cation. He  comes  out  of  the  Tarsus  period  of  his 
ministry,  however,  richer  in  experience  than  when 
he  entered  it.  He  is  a  stronger  man  and  minister  from 
every  point  of  view.  He  has  a  "handicap"  in  the 
thorn  in  the  flesh  that  apparently  remained  with  him 
to  the  end.  But  he  learned  lessons  of  wisdom  out  of 
that. 

8.  Said  as  an  Interpreter  of  Jesus. — It  is  just  here 
that  Saul  commands  so  much  attention  in  modem  times. 
His  mission  as  Apostle  to  the  Gentiles  does  concern 
us  greatly  also  since  we  are  in  large  measure  the  heirs 
of  his  European  labors.  He  planted  Christianity  in 
the  Roman  Empire,  and  modem  Europe  has  risen  out 
of  the  ruins  of  that  empire.    But,  important  as  the 


86  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

official  aspect  of  Paul's  career  is,  it  is  in  his  claims  as  a 
competent  interpreter  of  the  life  and  teachings  of  Jesus 
that  he  stands  or  falls  in  the  present  day.  The  cry 
"Back  to  Christ"  is  a  reasonable  cry,  when  one  con- 
siders the  dust  of  mediaeval  theology  that  has  been 
scattered  over  the  story  of  Christ.  Ecclesiastical 
councils  turned  dogma  into  a  club  to  use  on  the  heads 
of  the  recalcitrant.  The  schoolmen  split  hairs,  like 
their  prototypes  the  Pharisees  of  old,  to  justify  or  to 
evade  the  current  dogma.  The  reformers  set  up  new 
dogma  to  crush  the  dogma  of  the  schoolmen.  The 
hunger  for  Christ  has  become  world-wide.  Men  could 
see  Calvin;  but  where  was  Christ?  Men  could  find 
Augustine;  but  where  was  Jesus? 

It  was  not  hard  to  find  Paul  in  the  New  Testament; 
but  where  was  the  historical  Jesus?  Has  Paul  given 
us  the  real  Jesus  of  the  Gospels?  Indeed,  have  the 
Gospels  represented  or  misrepresented  Christ?  Do 
we  have  in  the  New  Testament  the  Christ  of  dogma 
or  the  Christ  of  fact?  One  cannot  complain  at  ques- 
tions like  these.  They  are  legitimate,  if  only  the  investi- 
gation be  prosecuted  in  the  right  spirit  and  with  proper 
methods.  The  question  as  to  the  Gospel  story  de- 
mands a  book  in  itself,  but  one  may  remark  that  the 
gradual  coming  back  of  Hamack  to  the  acceptance  of 
the  genuineness  of  Acts  is  a  symptom  of  the  times. 
The  acceptance  of  the  early  date  of  the  Gospels  and 
the  probable  order  (Mark,  Matthew,  Luke,  John) 
simplifies  the  matter  also.    Two  other  documents  are 


SAUL  LEARNING  CHRISTIANITY  87 

fairly  well  worked  out,  one  the  Logia  or  Sayings  of 
Jesus,  probably  used  by  Matthew  along  with  Mark. 
Ramsay  *  accepts,  in  the  main,  Harnack's  view  in  Say- 
ings and  Speeches  of  Jesus  that  this  book  of  Logia  or 
"Q"  corresponds  to  the  original  Aramaic  Matthew. 
The  point  of  it  all  is  that  the  result  of  historical  re- 
search is  to  strengthen  the  historical  basis  of  the  Gospel 
narratives.  John's  story  stands  largely  by  itself,  but  it 
stands.  From  the  Gospels  we  can  form  an  adequate 
picture  of  Jesus. 

What  about  Paul?  Wrede^  makes  Paul's  teaching 
differ  radically  from  that  of  Jesus.  He  considers  that 
Paul  brought  his  preconceived  ideas  of  the  Jewish 
Messiah  and  clothed  Jesus  with  them.  Thus  the  Jesus 
of  fact  is  not  the  Jesus  of  Paul's  theology.  Indeed, 
according  to  this  view  we  must  discard  Paul  as  a  com- 
petent witness  in  the  apprehension  of  the  historical 
Jesus.  This  is  a  serious  charge  to  make.  But  Wrede 
is  not  by  himself.  He  is  supported  by  Briickner.' 
Nietsche,  of  course,  ridicules  both  Paul  and  Jesus. 
And  Wellhausen^  has  to  be  reckoned  with.  But  Paul 
has  defenders  of  great  ability.  Kaftan^  answers 
Bousset's  notion*  of  Jesus  that  he  unwillingly  accepted 
the  r61e  of  Messiah.  He  attacks  vigorously  Wrede's 
views  about  Paul's  perversion  of  Jesus.  Julicher^ 
has  a  very  able  defence  of  the  essential  continuity  of  the 

»  "  Luke  the  Physician,"  pp.  71-lOL  »  "Paulus." 

'"Die  Entstehung  der  paulinischen  Christologie. 

*  "Einleitung  in  die  drei  ersten  Ev.,"  S. 

•  "Jesus  und  Paulus."        "  Jesus.       '  "Paulus  und  Jesus." 


88  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

Gospel  and  the  Pauline  conception  of  Jesus.  In- 
deed, so  clearly  is  this  true  that  some  critics  even  as- 
sert that  all  the  New  Testament  is  Pauline  except  the 
Petrine*  books.  If  one  rejects  the  Pauhne  view  of 
Christ  he  must  logically  reject  the  Synoptic  and  the 
Johannine  conceptions.  At  bottom  they  agree.^  Kol- 
bing^  ably  contends  for  the  justness  of  Paul's  picture  of 
Christ.  The  discussion  grows  in  interest  *  and  Paul's 
position  as  a  great  exponent  of  Jesus  is  ably  main- 
tained. 

Fraedlaender  ^  sums  the  matter  up  by  calling  him 
"the  congenial  interpreter  of  the  message  of  Jesus." 
Goguel  ®  properly  argues  that  with  Jesus  the  concrete 
reality  of  the  gospel  is  dominant,  but  Paul  aims  to 
interpret  the  facts  of  Christ's  life  and  teachings.  Saul 
did  not  invent  a  story  of  Jesus.  He  is  not  the  origi- 
nator of  Christianity  in  any  sense.     He  is  not  the  second 

» Sanday,  Art.  Paul  in  Hastings'  "D.  C.  G." 

a  Cf.  Warfield,  "The  Lord  of  Glory." 

'"Die  Geistige  Einwirkung  der  Person  Jesu  und  Paulus." 

*  Cf .  Schaeder,  "  Das  Evangelium  Jesu  und  das  Ev.  von  Jesus  " ; 
Resch,  "Der  Paulinismus  und  dieLogia  Jesu";  Goguel,  "L'Apo- 
tre  Paul  et  Je'sus";  Ruegg,  "Der  Apostel  Paulus  und  sein  zeugnis 
von  Jesus  Christus";  A.  Meyer,  "Wer  hat  das  Christentum  be- 
griindet,  Jesus  oder  Paulus?"  Feine,  "Jesus  Christus  und 
Paulus";  Monteil,  "Essai  sur  la  Christologie  de  Saint  Paul"; 
Moffatt,  Review  of  Theology  and  Philosophy  for  July,  1908,  and 
Biblical  World  for  September,  1908;  Knowling,  "Testimony  of 
St.  Paul  to  Christ";  Knowling,  "Witness  of  the  Epistles."  These 
will  serve  as  specimens  of  the  increasing  literature  on  the  sub- 
ject. For  further  lists  see  Theol.  Rundschau  for  1902,  1905,  etc.; 
Amer.  Journal  of  Theol.  for  1905,  etc.;  the  "Brief  Bibhography" 
in  this  book. 

"  "Religiosen  Beweg.,"  S.  373. 

•  "L'Apotre  Paul  et  Jesus,"  pp.  98  f. 


SAUL  LEARNING  CHRISTIANITY  89 

founder  of  Christianity.  He  built  on  the  one  foundation 
laid  by  Christ  himself  (I  Cor  3:11).  Paul  built  his 
theology  around  Jesus.  This  fact  explains  the  genetic 
connection  between  Jesus  and  Saul.  The  differences 
in  Saul's  view  are  due  to  fuller  expansion  and  adapta- 
tion with  his  own  peculiarities  of  mind  and  method, 
(cf.  James,  Peter,  John)  not  to  difference  in  spirit  or 
content. 

But  Saul  was  not  an  immediate  disciple  of  Jesus. 
That  is  true.  He  is  not,  however,  disqualified  for  appre- 
hending Christ.  If  so,  the  mission  of  Christ  would  be 
a  failure.  No  one  has  the  right  to  say  that  Saul  had 
no  knowledge  of  the  historical  Jesus.  If  Luke  could 
learn,  so  could  Saul.  Sanday  *  rightly  argues  that  the 
allusions  in  Saul's  Epistles  (cf.  I  Cor.  11  :  23-25;  15  : 
3-8)  must  be  regarded  as  samples  of  Paul's  knowledge 
of  the  details  of  the  life  of  Jesus.  He  appeals  to  the 
words  of  Jesus;,  he  understands  the  character  of  Jesus; 
he  knows  what  the  message  and  mission  of  Christ  is. 

One  is  not  to  suppose  that  Saul's  theology  did  not 
grow  with  new  knowledge  and  new  experience.  The 
orderly  development  of  his  theology  can  be  traced  in 
the  four  groups  of  his  Epistles  (I  and  II  Thessalonians; 
I  and  II  Corinthians,  Galatians,  Romans;  Philippians, 
Philemon,  Colossians,  Ephesians;  I  Timothy,  Titus,  II 
Timothy),  to  adopt  a  probable  grouping.  In  the 
first  group  he  will  contend  with  a  perversion  of  the 
doctrines  of  the  Second  Coming,  a  matter  prominent 
»  Art.  Paul  in  Hastings'  "D.  C.  G." 


90  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

in  the  early  apostolic  preaching.  In  the  second  group 
he  is  in  conflict  with  the  Judaizers.  In  the  third  group 
the  Gnostics  have  brought  the  person  of  Christ  to  the 
fore.  In  the  fourth  group  ecclesiastical,  pastoral  and 
personal  problems  naturally  concern  the  aged  Apostle 
before  his  death.  Each  group  suits  the  time  and  is 
vital  v^^ith  living  issues.  There  is  growth  in  grasp  and 
power  from  the  first  to  the  second  and  third  groups. 
In  the  fourth  we  see  Paul  in  the  contemplative  mood  of 
an  old  man.  One  is  not  to  think  of  Saul  as  entering 
upon  his  career  with  a  fully  developed  system.  Indeed 
he  had  turned  from  a  system  to  a  person  P  He  will  in- 
evitably have  system  in  his  theology,  but  only  as  that  en- 
ables him  to  express  his  growing  apprehension  of  Christ. 
The  death  and  resurrection  of  Christ  is  with  Paul 
the  heart  of  Christianity  as  it  was  in  truth  with  Jesus 
himself  when  rightly  understood.  Saul,  indeed,  began 
with  this  basal  truth  vivified  and  glorified  by  his  own 
great  experience.  His  early  preaching  coincided  with 
that  of  the  other  Apostles  in  proclaiming  the  Messiah- 
ship  of  Jesus.  ^  The  crucifixion  of  Christ  had  been  the 
stone  of  stumbling  for  Saul.  Now  it  is  the  rock  of  his 
faith.  In  the  future  Paul  will  go  high  and  go  deep, 
but  he  will  never  get  away  from  the  Cross  as  the  centre  of 
his  message.  Around  this  he  will  place  the  love  of 
God,  the  grace  of  God,  the  deity  of  Jesus  the  Son  of 
God,   the   sinfulness   of  man,   justification   by   faith, 

'  Baring-Gould,  "A  Study  of  St.  Paul,"  p.  89. 
^Matheson,  "Spiritual  Development  of  St.  Paul,"  p.  28. 


SAUL  LEARNING  CHRISTIANITY  91 

sanctification  in  Christ,  all  the  great  doctrines  of  grace. 
They  were  all  but  the  unfolding  of  the  seed.  He  had 
seen  the  face  of  Christ. 

The  effort  of  Baur  to  pit  Paul  and  Peter  over  against 
each  other  in  bitter  hostility  has  failed.  He  has  ad- 
mitted too  much.  One  has  only  to  compare  the  report 
of  Peter's  Sermon  in  Acts  2  at  Jerusalem  with  that  of 
Paul  at  Antioch  in  Pisidia  in  Acts  13  to  see  how  much 
they  agree  in  all  essential  matters.  If  one  is  not  willing 
to  trust  Luke  as  an  accurate  reporter,  then  compare 
I  Peter  with  Romans.  If  one  declines  to  acknowledge 
I  Peter  as  a  proper  representation  of  Peter's  views, 
then  he  has  no  right  to  set  Peter  over  against  Paul.  In 
Gal.  2  :  11  ff.  Paul  did  rebuke  Peter  for  inconsistency, 
not  for  difference  in  theology.  They  had  already 
agreed  in  their  theology  and  shaken  hands  over  it 
(Gal.  2:9).  We  need  not  refer  to  Acts  15  and  II  Peter 
3  :  15.  The  Christ  of  Paul  in  all  the  main  outlines 
is  the  Christ  of  the  early  apostolic  tradition,  of  Mark, 
of  Matthew,  of  Luke,  of  Peter,  of  James,  of  John,  in 
a  word,  of  Jesus  himself  as  we  know  him  through  the 
first  interpreters  of  Christ.  Primitive  Paulinism  is 
essential  Christianity.  Paul's  Gospel  has  become  the 
standard  of  the  Christian  world  because  he  had  learned 
Christ  as  he  really  was  and  is,  "even  as  truth  is  in 
Jesus"  (Eph.  4  :21).  We  may  thank  God  for  this 
man  of  a  nature  so  intense  and  an  insight  so  penetrating. 
Christ  has  never  had  another  servant  who  so  well  con- 
veyed the  fulness  and  richness  of  that  Gospel  of  the 


92  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

happy  God  which  is  the  hope  of  the  race  unless  John 
the  Apostle  be  placed  by  his  side,  as  he  ought.  One 
can  feel  the  heart-throb  of  Paul  in  his  letters  and  the 
rapier  sharpness  of  his  intellect,  the  passion  of  a  great 
soul  all  ablaze  with  love  of  Jesus  and  the  lost. 

But  no  view  of  Paul's  relation  to  Christ  is  adequate 
which  overlooks  the  mystical  side  of  his  life  in  Christ. 
Christ  lived  in  Paul  and  Paul  lived  in  Christ  (Gal.  2  :  20). 
For  him  life  meant  Christ  (Phil.  1  :  21),  no  more,  no 
less.  He  was  Christ's  slave.  He  did  all  "in  Christ."* 
This  intimate  knowledge  of  Christ  was  part  of  the  every- 
day experience  of  Paul.  But  he  claimed  for  his  mes- 
sage special  revelation  also.  "When  ye  read,  ye  can 
perceive  my  understanding  in  the  mystery  in  Christ" 
(Eph.  3  : 4).  We  can  indeed.  We  are  still  reading 
and  perceiving  new  things  in  that  understanding. 

*Cf.  Campbell,  "Paul  the  Mystic";  Deissmann,  "Die  Neut. 
Fonnel"  "in  Christo." 


CHAPTER  V 
SAUL  FINDS  HIS  WORK 

'*To  preach  unto  the  Gentiles  the  unsearchable  riches 
of  Christ"  (Eph.  3  :  8). 

1.  The  Emergency  at  Antioch. — Luke,  in  the  Acts, 
has  not  traced  the  order  of  events  in  such  a  way  as 
to  make  it  perfectly  clear  how  things  went  at  this  stage 
of  the  history.  He  left  Saul  at  Tarsus  and  comes 
back  to  Jerusalem.  Now  the  story  of  Peter  is  taken 
up.  Did  Saul  preach  to  Gentiles  in  Cilicia  and  Syria  ? 
We  do  not  know.  He  had  been  expressly  directed  to 
preach  to  the  Gentiles.  At  any  rate  Luke  tells  in 
some  detail  the  struggle  that  Simon  Peter  had  in  seeing 
that  the  Gentiles  could  be  converted  without  first  be- 
coming Jews.  Peter,  like  the  other  disciples,  received 
the  commission  to  go  into  all  the  world.  But  he  did 
not  at  all  understand  that  Gentiles  must, not  first  be- 
come Jews.  It  is  an  extremely  interesting  story  how 
he  was  led  gradually  and  with  difiiculty  by  his  experi- 
ence on  the  housetop  at  Joppa  and  in  the  house  of 
Cornelius  at  Csesarea,  to  see  that  God  was  indeed  no 
respecter  of  persons  and  would  save  a  Gentile  as  a 
Gentile.  That  was  the  new  point  which  he  "now" 
at  last  perceived  (Acts  10  :  34).    He  had  a  hard  time 

93 


94  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

convincing  some  of  the  saints  at  Jerusalem  that  his 
freedom  with  Cornelius  was  the  work  of  the  Lord.  It 
was  well  that  he  had  the  six  Jewish  brethren  along  with 
him  else  it  might  have  gone  hard  with  him  (Acts  11  :  2  f ., 
12,  18).  Evidently  the  mass  of  the  Church  at  Jerusa- 
lem were  not  ready  for  a  missionary  campaign  except 
along  lines  of  Jewish  proselytism. 

But  the  hand  of  God  was  moving  again.  Some  of 
the  disciples  expelled  from  Jerusalem  by  Saul  never 
came  back.  They  went  as  far  as  Cyprus,  Phoenicia 
and  Antioch,  but  still  spoke  only  to  Jews,  not  willing 
to  experiment  with  the  Gospel  unduly  (Acts  11  :  19). 
But  some  of  them  were  men  of  Cyprus  and  Cyrene, 
Hellenistic  Christians,  therefore.  These,  for  some 
reason  not  told,  ventured  to  try  the  Gospel  on  some 
Greeks  at  Antioch  (11  :  20),  perhaps  to  some  devout 
Greeks,  not  yet  proselytes,  who  had  business  and 
friendly  connections  with  the  Jews.  Some  of  them, 
we  know,  attended  the  synagogue  worship.  The 
mss.  vary  about  the  word  "Greeks"  or  "Grecian 
Jews,"  but  I  heartily  concur  in  the  acceptance  of 
"Greeks"  as  the  correct  text.  Otherwise  the  word 
"also"  has  little  sense.  It  was  no  novelty  to  preach 
to  Hellenistic  Jews.  That  was  going  on  everywhere 
and  at  Jerusalem  itself  (Acts  9  :  29).  The  same 
message  of  the  Lord  Jesus  was  preached  to  these 
Greeks  that  the  Jews  had  heard.  "And  the  hand  of 
the  Lord  was  with  them :  and  a  great  number  that  be- 
lieved turned  unto  the  Lord"  (11  :  21).    This  Gentile 


SAUL  FINDS  HIS  WORK  95 

revival  broke  out  of  itself  and  without  any  knowledge 
of  what  God  had  done  with  Peter  and  Cornelius. 
These  men  of  Cyprus  and  Cyrene  were  men  of  en- 
lightenment. They  seemed  to  realize  no  difficulty 
at  all  in  the  new  situation.  They  had  no  desire  to  op- 
pose the  manifest  work  of  the  Holy  Spirit. 

2.  A  Gentile  Church  at  Antioch. — ^A  new  thing  had 
come  into  existence,  unless,  indeed,  the  household  of 
Cornelius  was  organized  into  a  church  or  the  converts 
at  Samaria  had  formed  a  church.  At  any  rate,  whether 
a  new  thing  or  not,  the  Gentile  church  at  Antioch  was 
a  fact.  It  was  all  the  more  remarkable,  too,  because 
the  Apostles  had  had  nothing  to  do  with  it.  They 
had  sent  Peter  and  John  to  Samaria  to  examine  the 
results  of  the  work  of  Philip  there,  and  Peter  himself 
had  been  the  instrument  used  of  God  at  Csesarea. 
But  here  was  a  work  that  had  sprung  up  independently 
and  the  brethren  felt  no  need  of  help  from  Jerusalem. 
Slowly  the  leaven  is  working  and  the  gospel  is  taking 
root  in  Gentile  soil. 

3.  The  Mission  oj  Barnabas. — If  the  party  of  the  cir- 
cumcision (Acts  11:2)  demanded  an  explanation  of 
Peter  for  his  conduct  at  Csesarea,  they  would  not  hesi- 
tate to  demand  an  investigation  of  the  proceedings  at 
Antioch.  The  precedent  had  already  been  set  in 
sending  Peter  and  John  to  Samaria.  No  issue  then 
would  be  made  in  Jerusalem  on  this  point,  though  ap- 
parently the  Antioch  saints  had  not  asked  to  be  in- 
vestigated.   But  the  report  had  come  "to  the  ears  of 


96  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

the  church  in  Jerusalem"  (Acts  11  :  22).  The  pro- 
posal probably  came  from  the  Pharisaic  party  in  the 
church  there,  for  the  experience  of  Peter  at  Csesarea 
had  revealed  a  serious  cleavage  of  opinion  among  them 
on  the  missionary  question. 

But,  whatever  the  impulse,  a  wise  man  was  sent,  a 
committee  of  one,  Barnabas,  the  son  of  exhortation. 
He  was  just  the  type  of  man  needed  for  this  crisis, 
prudent  and  yet  courageous,  as  was  seen  in  his  cham- 
pionship of  Saul  in  Jerusalem.  It  is  worth  noting  that 
none  of  the  Apostles  went,  though  Peter  had  received 
special  preparation  on  the  Gentile  aspect  of  the  situ- 
ation. It  is  possible,  of  course,  that  he  and  the  other 
Apostles  were  away  from  Jerusalem  at  the  time.  The 
fact  that  Barnabas  was  from  Cyprus  may  have  marked 
him  out  as  the  man  to  send.  But  already  it  is  clear 
that  the  Apostles  are  not  to  do  all  the  work  in  the  King- 
dom. Stephen  and  PhiHp  had  given  ample  proof  of 
this,  if  any  was  needed.  It  is  particularly  added  about 
Barnabas  on  this  occasion  that  "he  was  a  good  man, 
and  full  of  the  Holy  Spirit  and  of  faith"  (verse  24), 
those  qualifications  that  fitted  him  for  the  really  serious 
task  imposed  upon  him.  For  actually  what  was  he  to 
do? 

We  know  what  he  did  do.  He  came,  he  saw  the 
grace  of  God,  he  was  glad.  Evidently  Barnabas  was 
not  of  the  Pharisaic  party  in  the  Jerusalem  church. 
He  exhorted  them  not  to  become  Jews,  but  to  cleave 
to  the  Lord.     They  had  made  a  good  start.     They 


SAUL  FINDS  HIS  WORK  97 

were  just  to  go  on  as  they  had  begun.  The  reason 
why  he  acted  so  wisely  is  found  in  the  quotation  from 
verse  24  which  is  introduced  by  "  for."  A  smaller  man 
could  and  would  have  caused  no  end  of  trouble  here 
as  to  circumcision,  baptism,  ordination.  The  seal  of 
God's  blessing  was  on  this  work  "and  much  people 
was  added  to  the  Lord."  The  thing  to  accent  specially 
in  the  matter  is  that  Barnabas  rejoiced  at  the  power 
of  God  which  was  at  work  among  the  Greeks.  He 
himself  had  come  from  the  island  of  Cyprus  as  had 
some  of  those  who  had  first  preached  here.  He  was 
thus  a  Hellenistic  Jew  and  had  some  sympathy  with 
the  Gentiles. 

4.  The  Insight  of  Barnabas.— There  had  evidently 
been  no  thought  in  Jerusalem  of  sending  for  Saul 
of  Tarsus.-  They  had  taken  him  into  the  fold,  but 
had  no  notion  of  intrusting  great  interests  to  his  care. 
He  was  too  uncertain  a  quantity  and  too  new  a  convert. 
He  could  wait.  But  Barnabas'  hands  seem  to  have 
been  left  free  by  the  Jerusalem  church.  Indeed,  they 
could  not  very  well  be  tied.  The  church  at  Antioch 
did  not  have  to  take  orders  from  the  church  at  Jeru- 
salem. The  independence  of  the  local  church  has  an 
actual  historical  development  in  the  difference  of  con- 
ditions between  Antioch  and  Jerusalem. 

Barnabas  had  the  gift  of  understanding  men.  He 
had  seen  the  good  in  Saul  in  Jerusalem.  He  has  heard 
of  the  work  that  he  had  since  been  doing  in  Syria  and 
Cilicia.     He  saw  at  a  glance  that  Saul  was  the  man  to 


98  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

keep  up  this  work  at  Antioch,  Saul  and  not  the  original 
Apostles,  who  were  all  Palestinian  Jews.  Here  was 
a  condition  that  called  for  a  man  of  breadth  of  sympathy 
and  culture  that  only  a  Hellenistic  Jew  could  have. 
The  door  of  opportunity  was  opening  to  the  whole 
Gentile  world.  There  must  be  no  mistake  made  at 
Ajitioch.  It  perhaps  never  occurred  to  Barnabas  to 
go  back  to  Jerusalem  and  ask  the  Pharisaic  party 
what  to  do  in  the  matter.  Perhaps  one  of  them  would 
have  liked  to  take  the  matter  in  hand. 

The  matter  was  urgent.  So  Barnabas  went  him- 
self to  Tarsus  to  seek  for  Saul.  He  found  him.  He 
brought  him  to  Antioch.  The  thing  was  done.  The 
problem  was  solved,  for  Saul  was  at  Antioch.  It  is  a 
curious  reflection  that  Saul  is  now  here,  Saul  the  very 
man  who  scattered  the  Christians  from  Jerusalem 
and  so  made  possible  this  open  door. 

5.  The  Man  and  the  Hour. — We  have  no  remarks 
on  SauFs  point  of  view.  The  story  is  all  told  from 
the  standpoint  of  Barnabas.  But  we  know  enough  of 
SauPs  history  to  see  that  he  knew  that  the  hour  of 
destiny  had  struck  for  him.  Here  is  a  Gentile  work 
ready  to  hand  in  the  greatest  city  of  Syria,  one  of  the 
strategic  centres  of  the  world.  It  was  the  hand  of 
Providence  beyond  a  doubt.  He  evidently  came  with 
alacrity. 

The  man  and  the  hour  had  met.  It  is  a  great  thing 
to  be  ready  when  the  hour  of  opportunity  comes. 
Saul  had  been  getting  ready  for  this  hour  all  his  life, 


SAUL  FINDS  HIS  WORK  99 

most  of  the  time  unconsciously,  part  of  it  consciously. 
In  Tarsus  and  Jerusalem  God  had  been  preparing  him 
for  work  among  the  Gentiles  as  well  as  Jews.  His 
conversion  and  call  had  come  some  eight  or  ten  years 
ago.  The  call  was  as  distinct  as  the  conversion,  but 
still  God  had  not  opened  wide  the  door  for  work  among 
the  Gentiles.  But  he  had  not  chafed  nor  had  he  been 
idle.  He  had  been  driven  from  Damascus  and  Jeru- 
salem. But  they  would  listen  to  him  in  Cilicia  and  Syria. 
So  he  had  worked  near  home  and  God  had  blessed  him. 
Now  he  is  ready  by  grace,  culture  and  experience  to 
grapple  with  the  new  problems  of  teaching  the  gospel 
to  the  Greeks.  He  had  the  zest  that  fires  every  true 
missionary's  heart.  He  is  now  in  the  prime  of  life, 
about  forty  three  or  four  years  old,  if  it  is  about  A.D. 
44  when  he  comes  to  Antioch.  He  has  had  a  wondrously 
checkered  career  so  far.  Will  he  justify  Christ's  choice 
of  him  as  the  Apostle  to  the  Gentiles  ? 

6.  The  Year  at  Antioch. — Barnabas  remained  with 
Saul  at  Antioch.  He  was  the  older  and  more  experi- 
enced man.  There  was  work  enough  for  both  of 
them  and  Barnabas'  heart  was  really  in  the  new  field, 
the  world-wide  work  of  missions.  He  was  not  needed 
in  Jerusalem.  The  work  of  expansion  and  instruction 
went  on  well. 

There  was  a  new  spirit  in  Antioch.  Jew  was  not 
writ  so  large  over  the  Great  Commission  here  and  it 
could  be  read  in  a  clearer  light.  Indeed,  a  new  name, 
that  of  Christian,  is  first  given  to  the  disciples  here. 


100  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

It  probably  arose  in  the  effort  of  the  Gentiles  to  dis- 
tinguish this  new  religious  body,  which  at  Antioch,  be- 
ing a  Gentile  church  on  the  whole,  was  not  a  sect  of 
Judaism.  They  were  followers  of  Christ  about  whom 
they  preached  and  in  whom  they  believed.  The  name 
comes  from  the  Gentile  point  of  view  and  may  have 
been  first  given  as  a  nickname  in  sport  or  derision. 
But  it  has  stuck.  In  the  first  century,  however,  it  is 
not  so  common,  occurring  only  three  times  in  the  New 
Testament,  the  usual  name  being  believers,  dis- 
ciples, saints.  Manifestly  no  great  point  was  made 
of  the  name.  Gradually  new  issues  come  to  the  sur- 
face at  Antioch  which  promises  to  be  a  rival  of  Jeru- 
salem. 

7.  The  Mission  to  Jerusalem. — ^There  was  some 
intercourse  between  Antioch  and  Jerusalem.  Some 
prophets  from  Jerusalem  (Christian  prophets  ap- 
parently) had  come  and  predicted  a  great  famine, 
which  soon  came.  This  famine  accented  the  poverty 
of  the  Jerusalem  saints.  They  had  already  been 
drained  to  the  bottom  in  previous  efforts  (Acts  4  and 
5)  to  relieve  the  necessities  of  the  great  number  of 
poor  people  in  the  church  there.  Barnabas  himself 
knew  all  about  the  financial  situation  in  Jerusalem, 
and  was  probably  one  of  the  generous  givers  at  that 
time  (Acts  4  :  36  f.).  Possibly  he  suggested  a  collec- 
tion from  this  Gentile  church  for  the  great  Jewish 
church.  That  would  greatly  help  the  Pharisaic  party 
to  understand  how  Gentiles  could  be  converted.    There 


SAUL  FINDS  mS  ^ORK\\:'/'.  >.^ii)f^ 

was  no  pressure,  but  each  gave  according  to  his  ability 
(Acts  11  :  29). 

Barnabas  and  Saul  took  the  contribution.  This 
gives  Saul  another  opportunity  to  visit  Jerusalem. 
The  Apostles  were  apparently  absent  in  the  mission 
work,  since  the  money  was  taken  to  "the  elders" 
(Acts  11  :  30),  officers  of  the  church  now  for  the  first 
time  mentioned.  The  term  occurs  in  connection  with 
the  Jewish  synagogue  and  also  popular  assemblies  in 
Egypt  (see  papyri).  These  same  officers  are  after- 
ward termed  bishops  and  pastors. 

We  do  not  know  the  exact  relation  in  order  of  time 
between  this  visit  of  Barnabas  and  Saul  and  the  death 
of  James  and  imprisonment  of  Peter  "about  that  time" 
(Acts  12  : 1).  It  may  have  been  before  the  persecu- 
tion by  Herod,  during  it  or  afterward.  If  it  was 
after  the  persecution  the  Apostles  may  have  been 
absent  from  the  city.  Ramsay  puts  the  famine  and 
visit  of  Barnabas  and  Saul  in  46  and  the  persecution 
in  44.* 

If  the  Apostles  were  absent  on  the  occasion  of  this 
visit,  one  can  the  better  understand  why  Paul  later, 
in  enumerating  his  interviews  with  the  Apostles  to 
establish  his  independence  of  them,  should  not  allude 
to  this  visit  at  all  (Gal.  2:1).  That  Paul  is  thinking 
of  the  Apostles  in  Gal.  2  : 2  is  manifest  by  the  word 
"  them  "  which  refers  to  the  Apostles  who  were  mentioned 
back  in  Gal.  1  :  19.  But  if  the  Apostles  were  in  the 
'  "St.  Paul  the  TraveUer,"  p.  49. 


t02  EPCJCHS:  m  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

city,  the  visit  was  not  to  them  and  still  may  not  have 
been  in  his  mind  in  Gal.  2  : 1  f . 

We  are  not,  indeed,  told  what  reception  Saul  had 
in  Jerusalem  at  this  time.  Barnabas  was  the  one 
who  had  to  explain  to  the  Pharisaic  party  what  had 
taken  place  at  Antioch.  He  seemed  entirely  successful, 
for  John  Mark  returned  with  him  and  Saul  to  Antioch 
(Acts  12  :  25  correct  text).  It  was  a  wonderful  story 
that  Barnabas  and  Saul  had  to  tell.  It  had  fired  the 
imagination  of  one  recruit  who  would  go  with  these 
returned  missionaries  as  they  went  back  to  Antioch. 

There  is  a  lull  for  the  moment.  Antioch  is  the  city 
of  opportunity.  Will  Antioch  be  worthy  of  it?  Will 
she  be  the  centre  of  a  world-wide  expansion  or  will  the 
work  stop  here?  Jerusalem  had  missed  her  day 
with  Christ  and  without  him.  It  was  not  exactly 
stagnation  at  Jerusalem,  for  the  new  civil  persecution 
under  Herod  Agrippa  I.  had  led  to  the  death  of  James 
the  Apostle  and  to  the  capture  of  Peter.  The  brethren 
had  met  at  the  house  of  John  Mark's  mother  to  pray 
for  Peter,  and  James,  the  Lord's  brother,  had  come 
to  the  front  in  the  church  there  (Acts  12  ;  17). 


CHAPTER  VI 

PAUL  THE  MISSIONARY  LEADER 

"Now  Paul  and  his  company  set  sail  from  Paphos, 
and  came  to  Perga  in  Pamphylia"  (Acts  13  :  13). 

1.  The  Call  to  a  World  Campaign. — ^The  call  had 
in  reality  been  given  a  long  time  ago.  Jesus  had  him- 
self given  it  to  the  disciples  three  times  after  his 
resurrection.  Peter  had  been  led  to  see  a  great  light 
on  the  subject  of  the  conversion  of  the  Gentiles.  The 
church  at  Jerusalem  had  acquiesced  in  the  manifest 
work  of  God  at  Csesarea  and  at  Antioch.  The  Apostles 
themselves  may  have  been  on  various  mission  trips  to 
the  Jews  scattered  abroad.  It  was  clear  that  Greeks 
could  be  saved.  The  Jewish  Christians  were  willing 
for  them  to  be  saved  without  becoming  Jews,  provided 
the  Lord  did  it.  He  must  be  responsible  for  that  breach 
in  the  middle  wall  of  partition  between  Jew  and  Gentile. 

Saul  himself  had  received  a  clear  and  definite  call 
to  the  Gentile  work,  and  he  is  now  engaged  in  it  along 
with  Barnabas.  They  have  both  shown  their  fitness  for 
leadership  in  an  advance  movement  among  the  Gen- 
tiles, if  one  is  to  be  made.  In  the  list  of  prophets  and 
teachers  at  Antioch  (Acts  13  : 1)  the  name  of  Barna- 
bas heads  the  list  for  obvious  reasons,  while  that  of 

103 


104  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

Saul  comes  last  for  reasons  not  so  obvious.  It  is  not 
safe  to  call  Bamabas  a  prophet  and  Saul  a  teacher, 
nor  indeed  to  say  that  Saul  was  the  least  influential 
in  the  list.  Luke  has  not  explained  his  reason  for 
this  order,  and  so  we  pass  it  by. 

But  the  impulse  towards  a  missionary  campaign 
on  an  extended  scale  did  not  come  from  any  of  these 
brethren.  The  Holy  Spirit  spoke  to  the  prophets  and 
teachers,  whether  to  the  church  is  uncertain  (owing 
to  the  ambiguous  phrase  "in  the  church").  The  words 
of  the  call  do  not  specify  where  Barnabas  and  Saul  are 
to  go  nor  indeed  specifically  what  the  work  is.  But 
they  are  called  directly  for  the  new  enterprise.  The  call 
was  acknowledged  by  both  Barnabas  and  Saul.  Was 
it  the  first  time  that  Bamabas  had  received  such  a  call  ? 

2.  The  Acquiescence  of  the  Antioch  Church. — This 
is  all  that  we  are  entitled  to  say  for  them.  It  is  not 
absolutely  certain  that  "they"  of  Acts  13  :3  includes 
the  church  as  a  whole,  but  it  is  probable.  If  so,  we 
do  find  approval  by  the  church  of  this  great  missionary 
enterprise.  It  is  the  glory  of  the  church  at  Antioch 
that  they  put  no  stumbling-block  in  the  way  of  Bama- 
bas and  Saul,  but  wished  them  well.  That  was  cer- 
tainly more  than  the  Pharisaic  party  in  the  Jerusalem 
church  would  have  done.  But  Antioch,  not  Jerusalem, 
is  the  new  centre  from  which  the  gospel  starts  on  its 
world  conquest.  Christianity  continually  finds  new 
centres  as  the  old  ones  prove  unworthy—Jerusalem, 
Antioch,  Ephesus,  Alexandria,  Rome,  not  to  go  further. 


PAUL  THE  MISSIONARY  LEADER  105 

There  is  no  evidence  that  the  Antioch  church  gave 
anything  for  the  support  of  Barnabas  and  Saul.  The 
church  as  a  church  did  not  originate  the  campaign  nor 
finance  it.  They  prayed  for  Barnabas  and  Saul  and 
bade  them  God-speed.  They  were  "sent  forth  by 
the  Holy  Spirit"  (Acts  13  :  4).  It  was  an  heroic  task 
for  these  two  men  to  go  out  into  the  heathen  darkness. 
They  knew  that  Jesus  would  be  with  them.  But  al- 
ready Herod  Agrippa  I.  had  killed  James.  Who 
could  tell  what  fate  awaited  them?  It  is  always  a 
solemn  thing  to  stand  by  the  fountains  of  historic 
movements.  Here  was  the  genesis  of  the  mission 
work  on  a  large  scale.  God  was  in  it,  though  some 
Christians  were  not. 

There  is  no  evidence  that  the  laying  on  of  hands  in 
verse  3  was  ordination.  Both  Barnabas  and  Saul 
had  been  effective  preachers  a  number  of  years.  It 
was  probably  more  like  a  consecration  service  or  fare- 
well service. 

3.  The  Leadership  of  Barnabas. — One  need  not  be 
surprised  at  the  fact  that  Barnabas  is  at  the  head  of 
the  new  campaign.  He  was  the  older  man  and  had 
had  charge  of  the  work  in  Antioch.  He  had  asked 
Saul's  help  in  that  field.  One  must  not  let  the  after 
development  of  Saul  obscure  the  real  situation  at  this 
stage.  Luke  is  a  true  historian  and  preserves  the  right 
perspective.  Saul  had  had  a  marvellous  experience, 
but  none  the  less  as  yet  he  had  not  won  the  place  in 
the  kingdom  now  occupied  by  Barnabas.    There  was 


106  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

in  this  matter  no  reflection  on  Saul  at  all,  even  though 
he  had  received  a  direct  call  from  Jesus  to  the  Gentile 
work.  Besides,  the  Holy  Spirit  had  expressly  named 
the  order  "Barnabas  and  Saul"  who  were  to  be  sepa- 
rated for  this  work.  It  was  all  very  simple,  and  certainly 
Saul  would  feel  no  jealousy  toward  Barnabas  who  had 
done  so  much  for  his  ministry. 

The  reason  for  the  presence  of  John  Mark  in  the 
company  is  not  made  perfectly  clear  by  Luke  (Acts 
13:5).  The  term  "attendant"  is  rather  vague. 
Was  he,  as  has  been  suggested,  a  synagogue  minister  ? 
Perhaps  he  had  wished  to  go  on  with  Barnabas  and 
Saul,  having  come  with  them  from  Jerusalem.  A 
certain  youthful  spirit  of  adventure  may  have  led  him 
on  along  with  a  real  desire  to  be  useful  in  the  cause  of 
Jesus.  He  was  kin  to  Barnabas  anyhow  and  agree- 
able to  Saul. 

4.  Cyprus:  Leadership  of  Paul. — ^The  reasons  for 
going  to  Cyprus  are  fairly  obvious,  though  Luke  does 
not  announce  a  formal  programme  for  the  expedition. 
As  Barnabas  was  the  leader,  he  probably  desired  to  go 
to  Cyprus  because  it  was  his  old  home  and  because 
there  were  already  some  Christians  on  the  island. 
There  were  Jews  there  besides,  and  it  was  near.  These 
reasons  that  lie  on  the  surface  may  have  been  reinforced 
by  others. 

They  landed  at  Salamis,  on  the  eastern  shore  facing 
Syria.  No  details  of  the  work  are  given  by  Luke 
save  the  fact  that  they  "proclaimed  the  word  of  God 


PAUL  THE  MISSIONARY  LEADER  107 

in  the  synagogues  of  the  Jews"  (Acts  13  :5).  They 
had  been  sent  forth  to  preach  to  the  Gentiles,  but  they 
were  not  told  not  to  preach  to  the  Jews.  Besides,  a 
number  of  Gentiles  would  have  more  or  less  connection 
with  the  Jews  in  business  and  worship.  If  this  nucleus 
of  devout  Greeks  could  be  reached,  it  would  be  easier 
to  get  hold  of  the  other  Greeks.  The  conduct  of  the 
Apostles  at  this  place,  for  Barnabas  is  an  Apostle 
in  the  etymological  sense  of  missionary,  will  be  re- 
peated uniformly  whenever  Jews  can  be  found  who 
will  listen.  The  Jews  and  their  Gentile  friends  form 
a  nucleus  accessible  to  the  new  faith.  We  are  not  told 
what  the  success  was  at  this  point  nor  in  the  long 
journey  afoot  across  the  island. 

But  at  Paphos,  the  seat  of  the  licentious  worship 
of  Aphrodite,  a  more  detailed  picture  is  given.  Two 
men  of  prominence,  typical  of  the  times,  are  here. 
One  was  the  Jewish  sorcerer,  Elymas  Barjesus,  who 
reminds  us  of  Simon  the  sorcerer,  with  whom  Simon 
Peter  had  a  sharp  collision  (Acts  8)  at  Samaria.  The 
case  of  the  seven  sons  of  Sceva,  a  Jew,  in  Acts  19  :  14 
is  parallel.  If  it  seems  queer  that  Jews  should  have 
taken  to  the  magic  art,  one  has  only  to  reflect  that  in 
Christian  lands  soothsayers  and  mediums  still  flourish 
and  live  on  popular  superstition. 

The  other  man  of  distinction  was  the  proeensul  of 
the  island,  Sergius  Paulus.  It  is  now  common  knowl- 
edge how  Luke's  accuracy  in  the  detail  of  the  term 
proconsul  rather  than  propraetor  has  been  vindicated 


108  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

both  by  coin  and  by  better  understanding  of  Dio 
Cassius.  Cyprus  at  this  particular  time  was  a  sena- 
torial province.  This  official  was  also  "a  man  of 
understanding"  in  spite  of  his  being  under  the  in- 
fluence of  the  Jewish  sorcerer.  He  showed  intelli- 
gence clearly  in  sending  for  Barnabas  and  Saul  and 
wishing  to  hear  the  gospel  preached.  To-day  some 
men  imagine  that  they  display  intelligence  by  refusing 
the  preaching  of  the  word.  But  the  false  prophet  had 
no  notion  of  seeing  his  hold  on  the  proconsul  loos- 
ened. So  he  withstood  Barnabas  and  Saul,  trying 
to  undo  what  they  had  already  accomplished  with 
him. 

It  was  a  crisis.  Saul  is  the  one  who  sees  the  issue 
at  stake.  It  is  interesting  to  note  how  Luke  here,  for 
the  first  time,  brings  in  Saul's  Roman  name  Paul,  per- 
haps suggested  to  him  by  the  conflict  over  the  Roman 
Sergius  Paulus.  It  was  common  in  that  cosmopolitan 
age  for  men  to  have  one  name  from  one  nation,  the 
other  from  another.  Thus  Cephas  was  Aramaic, 
but  Simon,  Greek,  like  Salome  Alexandra.  John 
Mark  had  both  Aramaic  (Hebrew)  and  Roman  names 
like  Saul-Paul.  As  a  Roman  citizen  Paul  had  always 
probably  had  both  names.  Luke  may  have  had  an 
artistic  purpose  in  using  Paul  from  now  on. 

Paul  is  filled  with  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  with  penetrat- 
ing gaze  challenges  this  "son  of  the  devil"  and  pro- 
nounces the  curse  of  temporary  blindness  upon  him. 
The  result  was  all  that  was  needed  to  confirm  Sergius 


PAUL  THE  MISSIONARY  LEADER  109 

Paulus  in  the  faith.  He  is  astonished.  He  had 
never  seen  Elymas  do  it  in  this  wise.^ 

And  now  it  is  "Paul  and  his  company,"  according 
to  Luke,  who  set  sail  from  Paphos.  Was  anything  said 
about  the  leadership  ?  One  hardly  thinks  so.  Indeed, 
Barnabas  may  still  have  felt  himself  in  charge  of  the 
work.  Occasionally  after  this  Luke  will  speak  of 
Barnabas  and  Paul,  but  usually  it  is  Paul  and  Barna- 
bas. But  the  inevitable  had  happened.  Paul  was  the 
man  of  initiative  and  energy.  He  had  the  gift  of  leader- 
ship and  exercised  it  as  the  occasion  rose.  The  rest 
followed  naturally.  Barnabas  gave  no  sign  of  jealousy 
nor  did  he  probably  have  any  such  feeling.  He  could 
easily  be  pr6ud  of  Paul.  If  Barnabas  led  the  way  to 
Cyprus,  probably  Paul  suggested  the  mainland  of 
Pamphylia. 

5.  Perga:  John  Mark's  Desertion. — ^Perga  was  in 
Pamphylia,  a  rough  province  in  many  ways.  It  now 
became  apparent  to  Mark  that  he  had  enough  of  this 
tour  if  Paul  meant  to  push  on  up  the  mountains  to 
the  high  table-lands  of  Pisidia.  There  were  some 
privations  in  Cyprus,  but  here  perils  of  rivers  and 
perils  of  robbers  loomed  before  his  imagination.  Did 
the  change  in  leadership  affect  Mark  at  all  ?  Barnabas 
will  not  hold  Mark's  return  to  Jerusalem  against  him, 
but  Paul  will  not  forget  that  "he  went  not  with  them 
to  the  work"  (Acts  15  :  38).  It  is  a  serious  indictment 
against  a  man  that  he  will  not  stand  to  his  task.  Per- 
>Cf.  Stalker,  "Life  of  St.  Paul,"  p.  79. 


110  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

haps  Mark  had  excuses  enough.  He  was  going  oack 
home.  His  mother  may  not  have  been  wiUing  for  him 
to  come  anyhow.  He  was  really  not  much  needed, 
for  Paul  did  all  the  preaching.  His  work  was  only  of 
a  subordinate  nature.  The  positiveness  and  intensity 
of  Paul  later,  when  Barnabas  proposes  the  name  of 
Mark  again,  suggests  that  Paul  may  have  said  some 
sharp  things  to  him  as  he  left  and  certainly  felt  them. 
Paul  met  Perga  as  well  as  Mark,  but  he  and  Barnabas 
went  on  over  the  mountains  while  Mark  sulked  and 
went  home. 

6.  Antioch  in  Pisidia:  a  Specimen  of  Paul's  Preach- 
ing.— Pamphylia  was  probably  the  objective  point 
when  they  left  Cyprus,  though,  for  some  unexplained 
reason,  no  actual  work  was  done  there  at  this  time. 
They  push  on  to  Pisidian  Antioch,  which  is  about 
3,600  feet  above  the  sea.  They  are  now  in  the  Roman 
province  of  Galatia.  It  is  the  southern  part  of  the 
province  which  embraced  part  of  Phrygia,  Pisidia, 
and  Lycaonia.  The  northern  section  of  the  province 
of  Galatia  covered  Galatia  proper,  the  old  home  of 
the  Celts  (Gauls),  who  invaded  this  region  and  gained 
a  foothold,  and  the  northern  part  of  Phrygia.  It  is 
still  a  debated  question  in  what  sense  Luke  uses  the 
term  Region  of  Galatia  in  Acts  16  : 6  and  Acts  18  :  23 
and  what  is  Paul's  usage  in  Gal.  1  :  2.  The  question 
is  of  too  technical  a  nature  for  minute  discussion  in  this 
book.  It  is  possible,  indeed,  that  Paul  may  include 
the  whole  province  in  his  use  of  the  term.    If  so,  the 


PAUL  THE  MISSIONARY  LEADER  111 

Epistle  would  be  addressed  to  all  the  churches  in  the 
province.  Luke  may  be  using  the  term  in  the  ethno- 
graphic sense  like  Pisidia,  Lycaonia,  Phrygia,  Mysia. 
As  matters  now  stand  one  cannot  be  dogmatic.  Ram- 
say, in  all  his  books  on  Paul/  has  set  forth  very  ably 
the  South  Galatian  view  that  both  Paul  and  Luke 
mean  only  the  region  included  in  Phrygia,  Pisidia, 
Lycaonia  (Acts  13  and  14)  and  that  Paul  never  entered 
Galatia  proper,  the  old  ethnographic  use  of  the  term 
(North  Galatia).  But  the  view  that  Paul  entered 
North  Galatia,  that  Luke  so  means  in  Acts  16  : 6  and 
18  :  23,  and  that  Paul  addressed  his  Epistle  to  the 
real  Celts  of  that  section  still  has  able  advocates.  On 
the  whole  I  cannot  see  that  this  natural  way  of  inter- 
preting both  Luke  and  Paul  is  overthrown,  though 
admitting  fully  the  doubt  on  the  subject. 

So  then  Paul  and  Barnabas  are  in  the  Roman  prov- 
ince of  Galatia,  whether  or  not  Paul  ever  entered  the 
old  Galatia.  Paul  is  in  one  of  the  great  cities  of  this 
ancient  region.  He  will  tap  the  centres  of  life  along  the 
great  roads  that  run  east  and  west.  It  will  mean  much 
if  the  gospel  can  be  firmly  planted  in  the  great  prov- 
ince of  Galatia.  This  southern  part  was  a  hive  of 
life.  Antioch  in  Pisidia  was  the  centre  of  a  vast 
region. 

We  do  hot  know  how  long  Paul  and  Barnabas  had 
been  in  the  city  before  they  addressed  the  Jews  in  the 

*See  especially  "St.  Paul  the  Traveller"  and  "Historical 
Commentary  on  Galatians." 


112  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

synagogue.  It  may  not  have  been  the  first*  Sabbath. 
They  sat  down  in  orderly  worship  as  other  Jews  did, 
but  could  not  conceal  the  fact  that  they  were  strangers. 
The  invitation  to  give  the  Jewish  brethren  "a  word 
of  exhortation"  (Acts  13  :  15)  could  not  be  resisted. 
Paul  stood  up  according  to  the  Greek  fashion,  and 
Luke  even  comments  on  his  gestures. 

We  are  grateful  for  this  specimen  of  Paul's  preaching. 
He  is  now  an  experienced  preacher,  but  as  yet  we  have 
had  only  fragments  of  his  discourses  given,  the  mere 
theme  or  the  main  points.  But  on  this  occasion  the 
line  of  argument  is  presented  to  us  in  some  detail. 
It  is  easy  to  say  that  Luke  has  just  made  up  this  ad- 
dress after  the  fashion  of  Xenophon  and  Thucydides. 
But  we  know  that  Luke  made  use  of  documents  in 
his  Gospel  (Luke  1  : 1-4).  Paul  may  have  made  notes 
for  this  address  and  preserved  them  for  Luke.  Surely 
Luke  was  with  Paul  enough  to  have  access  to  any 
papers  which  he  kept.  We  may  accept  the  report  as 
a  substantial  presentation  of  PauPs  address.  As  the 
first  of  Paul's  discourses  we  may  note  some  details. 

The  first  thing  that  impresses  one  is  the  fact  that 
Paul  here  occupies  the  same  point  of  view  that  he 
had  in  Damascus  when  he  first  began  his  ministry 
(Acts  9  :20)  when  "he  proclaimed  Jesus,  that  he  is 
the  Son  of  God."  So  here  also  are  found  the  resurrec- 
tion of  Jesus  (13  :  30  f.)  and  the  Sonship  of  Jesus 
(verse  33).  The  Messiahship  of  Jesus  is  proven  by 
» Ramsay,  "St.  Paul  the  Traveller,"  p.  99. 


PAUL  THE  MISSIONARY  LEADER  113 

his  resurrection  from  the  dead  (32,  34).  Paul  grasps 
clearly  the  human  and  the  divine  aspects  of  Christ's 
person.  He  does  not  here  allude  to  his  own  experi- 
ence in  seeing  Jesus  alive  after  his  death,  but  he 
rather  appeals  to  the  common  experience  of  many 
in  Jerusalem  who  were  still  alive  (verse  31).  Perhaps 
this  was  due  to  the  fact  that  Paul  was  a  total  stranger 
to  the  audience  and  his  own  experience  as  yet  would 
carry  little  weight. 

But  around  this  central  theme  Paul  built  up  a  skil- 
ful argument.  Like  Stephen,  whose  successor  he  is 
in  many  ways,  he  first  recounts  the  history  of  the  chosen 
people  from  Moses  to  David  (17-22).  He  then  an- 
nounced the  wonderful  fact  that  the  Messianic  King 
promised  to  David's  line  has  come  and  that  his  name 
is  Jesus  (verse  23),  and  he  is  a  Saviour  to  Israel.  He 
outlines  briefly  the  mission  and  message  of  John  the 
Baptist  (24  f.)  in  perfect  accord  with  the  Synoptic 
account  of  the  Baptist  as  the  forerunner,  preacher  of 
repentance  and  baptizer,  unwilling  to  pose  as  the 
Messiah  himself.  Evidently  Paul  had  been  learning 
the  historical  facts  about  the  origin  of  Christianity. 
He  then  appeals  to  the  Jews  and  the  proselytes  (in  a 
loose  sense  of  that  term)  from  the  Gentiles,  and  an- 
nounces "to  us  is  the  word  of  this  salvation  sent  forth" 
(26).  The  dreadful  story  of  the  death  of  Jesus  at 
the  hands  of  the  Jewish  rulers  and  of  Pilate  is  briefly 
told  (27-29).  The  resurrection  is  discussed  more  at 
length  as  the  heart  of  the  great  message  (30-37)  and 


114  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

in  accord  with  the  Scriptures.  *' Therefore,"  says 
Paul,  the  first  of  those  logical  *'therefores"  so  com- 
mon in  his  Epistles,  "through  this  man  is  proclaimed 
unto  you  remission  of  sins"  (38).  This  "therefore" 
points  to  the  atoning  death  of  Jesus  who  is  shown  to 
be  the  Messiah  and  Saviour  by  his  resurrection.  But 
this  is  not  all:  "And  by  him  every  one  that  believeth 
is  justified  from  all  things,  from  which  ye  could  not 
be  justified  by  the  law  of  Moses"  (39).  This  sentence 
is  pregnant  with  meaning.  This  salvation  is  personal 
("by  him")  and  not  by  a  mere  creed  or  ceremonial 
observance.  It  is  open  to  all  ("every  one")  both  Jew 
and  Greek.  Belief  or  trust  is  the  basal  demand,  not 
works  of  the  law.  Full  justification  is  realized  as  a 
fact,  not  a  mere  hope.  The  Mosaic  law  had  not 
brought  actual  justification.  Here  is  the  kernel  of  PauFs 
theology  as  we  have  it  expounded  in  Galatians  and 
Romans.  It  is  clear  that  he  has  rightly  apprehended 
the  teaching  of  Jesus  as  set  forth  by  Christ  himself,  by 
Peter  on  the  Day  of  Pentecost,  and  by  Stephen.  Paul 
will  learn  more,  but  he  will  not  need  to  unlearn  this. 
He  closes  the  sermon  by  a  passionate  appeal  from 
Hab.  1  : 5  (40  f.). 

The  sermon,  as  a  whole,  is  a  masterpiece  of  skill 
and  adaptation  in  a  difiicult  situation.  His  addresses 
will  all  repay  study,  as  reported  in  Acts,  for  this  adap- 
tation to  time,  place,  audience.  Instance,  besides  this 
one,  that  at  Lystra  (Acts  14  :  15-17),  at  Athens  (Acts 
17  :  22-31),  on  the  steps  of  the  tower  of  Antonia  (Acts 


PAUL  THE  MISSIONARY  LEADER  115 

22  : 3-21),  before  Felix  (Acts  24  :  10-21),  before 
Festus  (Acts  24  :  10  f.),  before  Agrippa  (Acts  26 : 2- 
23),  before  the  Jews  in  Rome  (Acts  28  :  17-28).  His 
addresses  were  never  "misfits."  It  is  small  wonder 
that  on  this  occasion  the  effect  was  very  great.  The 
people  begged  a  repetition  of  "these  words"  on  the 
next  Sabbath. 

But  the  new  preacher  was  entirely  too  successful 
from  the  point  of  view  of  the  Jews,  and  especially 
the  rulers  of  the  synagogue,  who  had  asked  Paul  to 
speak  at  first.  They  did  not  relish  the  whole  town's 
coming  out,  including  Greeks  of  all  sorts.  Paul  had 
let  the  bars  down  for  the  Gentiles  to  come  right  into 
the  Jewish  synagogue.  They  came,  but  the  Jews  were 
filled  with  jealousy  and  openly  contradicted  Paul  and 
even  blasphemed  or  railed  (marg.)  at  him  (Acts  13  :  45). 

The  issue  had  come  at  last.  Paul  and  Barnabas 
wished  to  preach  the  Gospel  to  both  Jew  and  Gentile. 
Paul  had  done  so.  But  these  Jews  at  Antioch  in 
Pisidia  would  have  no  Messiah  like  that,  nor  message 
for  the  ^am-ha-'aretz.  Paul  and  Barnabas  were  quick 
to  grasp  the  new  turn  of  affairs.  "It  was  necessary 
that  the  message  of  God  should  first  be  spoken  to  you. 
Seeing  ye  thrust  it  from  you,  and  judge  yourselves 
unworthy  of  eternal  life,  lo!  we  turn  to  the  Gentiles" 
(13  :  46).  Every  word  cut  like  a  knife.  They  justify 
their  conduct  by  an  appeal  to  Scripture  (Is.  49  : 6), 
a  passage  evidently  not  familiar  to  the  Pharisaic  rab- 
bis.    But  here  is  a  platform  upon  which  Paul  will 


116  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

stand  in  his  presentation  of  the  gospel  for  the  whole 
world.  The  Jews  have  the  right  to  a  hearing  first. 
But  the  Gentiles  shall  not  have  the  door  of  hope  shut 
in  their  faces. 

It  was  a  crisis  in  the  world  campaign.  But  the  path 
was  plain.  What  would  be  the  result?  That  must 
take  care  of  itself.  God  took  care  of  it.  The  elect 
among  the  Gentiles  believed  with  gladness  and  glorified 
God  (Acts  13  :  48  f.)  and  the  word  of  the  Lord  spread 
throughout  all  that  region.  Evidently  Paul  and 
Barnabas  remained  here  some  time  and  worked  among 
the  Gentiles.  But  success  merely  angered  the  Jewish 
rulers  all  the  more.  Paul  and  Barnabas  paid  no  at- 
tention to  them.  But  the  rabbis  found  a  way  to  reach 
the  magistrates  of  the  city/  not  officials  of  the  province. 
They  managed,  by  means  of  some  female  proselytes, 
to  get  hold  of  some  "devout  women  of  honorable  es- 
tate" who  persuaded^  the  magistrates  to  expel  Paul 
and  Barnabas  from  the  city  as  disturbers  of  the  peace. 
The  rabbis  and  the  women  had  their  ears.  Paul  and 
Barnabas  had  to  obey  the  city  magistrates  and  depart, 
but  they  "shook  the  dust  of  their  feet  against  them" 
as  they  went  (verse  51).  But  the  rabbis  cannot  undo 
what  Christ  has  done  for  the  Gentiles  at  Antioch. 

7.  Iconium:     Division    Among    the    Gentiles. — At 

Iconium  they  were  in  the  same  Region  as  Antioch.' 

^  Ramsay,  "St.  Paul  the  Traveller,"  p.  105. 
'Conybeare  and  Howson,  "Life  and  Epistles  of  St.  Paul," p. 
81,  Vol.  I.,  Scribner's  ed. 

»  Ramsay,  "St.  Paul  the  Traveller,"  p.  109. 


PAUL  THE  MISSIONARY  LEADER  117 

Here  they  boldly  entered  the  synagogue  of  the  Jews 
and  had  great  success  with  both  Jews  and  Greeks 
(14  : 1).  Here  also  the  disbelieving  element  among 
the  Jews  resisted  Paul  and  Barnabas.  History  often 
repeats  itself  as  in  the  work  of  Jesus  in  different  parts 
of  Palestine.  The  new  thing  at  Iconium  was  that 
the  Greeks  themselves  became  divided,  part  holding 
with  Paul,  part  with  the  hostile  Jews  (14  : 2-4).  Signs 
and  wonders  were  wrought  here,  but  still  the  multitude 
was  divided.  At  Antioch  the  Jews  had  finally  gotten 
the  Greek 'Women  and  magistrates  to  drive  Paul  and 
Barnabas  out  of  town.  One  must  remember  that 
then,  as  now,  the  Jews  had  financial  influence.  But 
here  at  Iconium  the  opposition  takes  the  form  of  a 
mob,  and  both  Gentiles  and  Jews  make  an  "onset"  on 
the  Apostles,  to  treat  them  shamefully  and,  if  possible, 
to  stone  them.  But  discretion  was  the  better  part  of 
valor  and  Paul  and  Barnabas  fled  (14  : 6).  The  Jews 
had  carried  their  point  again. 

8.  Lystra:  The  Fickle  Populace. — Here  a  new 
region*  is  entered,  that  part  of  Lycaonia,  comprising 
Lystra,  Derbe  and  a  "cityless"  section.  At  Lystra 
no  mention  is  made  of  a  synagogue  nor  indeed  of  any 
Jews.  It  is  a  Gentile  atmosphere  into  which  they 
enter.  The  excitabihty  and  fickleness  of  the  Lyca- 
onians  have  been  often  commented  upon,  with  which 
one  may  compare  the  changeableness  of  the  Galatians 
(Gal.  1:6),  who  may,  indeed,  be  the  same  people. 
»  Ramsay,  "St.  Paul  the  Traveller,"  p.  110  f. 


118  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

The  healing  of  the  lame  man  led  the  multitude  to  take 
Barnabas  for  Jupiter  and  Paul  for  Mercury.  They 
manifestly  took  Barnabas  as  the  major  god  and  Paul 
as  his  spokesman.  They  had  a  myth  about  such  divine 
visits  to  their  country.  They  know  Greek  as  well  as 
their  own  Lycaonian  dialect.  Surely,  Paul  and  Barna- 
bas have  popularity  to  spare  when  the  priest  of 
Jupiter  gravely  proposes  to  offer  sacrifice.  The  ad- 
dress of  Paul  (and  Barnabas)  was  noble  in  its  tone, 
and  skilful  in  turning  their  thoughts  to  the  living  God. 
He  has  to  appeal  to  these  men  from  the  point  of  nature, 
presenting  God  as  creator  and  preserver  of  all  men 
(14  :  15-17).  His  Hellenism  stood  him  in  good  stead 
now  as  he  sought  a  standpoint  from  which  to  reach 
such  a  crowd.  Even  so,  he  had  difficulty  in  restrain- 
ing the  multitude  (verse  18). 

A  god  one  day,  a  mere  man  the  next  day  stoned 
and  left  for  dead.  Thus  the  crowd  changed  under 
the  subtle  persuasion  of  the  Jews,  who  had  come  on 
from  Antioch  and  Iconium,  flushed  with  victory,  and 
determined  to  kill  Paul  at  any  rate.  They  did  stir 
this  Greek  crowd.  One  may  wonder  how  Jews  could 
be  successful  with  Greeks,  but  they  knew  what  argu- 
ments to  make.  They  dragged  Paul  out  of  the  city 
and  left  him  as  a  dead  man.  The  real  disciples  in 
Lystra,  for  there  were  some  (Timothy,  for  instance, 
whose  father  was  a  Greek  and  whose  mother  was  a 
Jewess),  gathered  in  a  circle  around  the  body  in  sor- 
row.   Probably  Timothy  was  in  that  circle.    So  near 


PAUL  THE  MISSIONARY  LEADER  119 

did  Paul  come  to  the  end  of  his  career  on  his  first 
missionary  tour.  But  he  rose  from  the  ground  and 
went  on  his  way.  He  had  once  had  a  share  in  the  work 
of  the  mob  that  stoned  Stephen.  Now  he  knew  what 
it  was  to  be  stoned  himself  by  the  fury  of  a  mob. 

9.  Derbe:  The  End  of  the  Tour. — Not  a  single  de- 
tail is  given  of  the  work  in  this  city  except  that  much 
success  was  achieved  (Acts  14 :  21).  Probably  perse- 
cution arose  here  likewise.  It  was  now  time  to  go 
back  home.'    How  shall  they  return  ? 

10.  Strengthening  the  Churches. — ^Much  had  been 
accomplished,  if  it  could  be  made  permanent.  Organ- 
ization was  needed  with  officers.  Words  of  encourage- 
ment and  advice  would  be  helpful.  But  how  could 
they  return  in  safety?  Ramsay^  suggests  that  new 
magistrates  had  now  come  into  office  in  all  the  cities 
where  they  had  been,  and  hence  they  could  come  back 
to  them  in  safety.  It  is  with  grateful  hearts  that  the 
Apostles  retraced  their  steps.  They  could  exhort 
with  power  how  "that  through  many  tribulations  we 
must  enter  into  the  Kingdom  of  God"  (14  :  22).  They 
prayed  and  they  fasted.  A  church  with^  elders  is  es- 
tablished in  each  city.  Gentile  churches  these,  for  the 
Jews  had  given  little  response  to  the  message.  When 
Perga  was  reached  they  hurry  on  to  Antioch,  skipping 
Cyprus. 

11.  Report  to  the  Church  at  Antioch. — ^They  had  a 
wonderful  story  to  tell.    They  had  "  fulfilled  "  (14 :  26) 

»"St.  PaultheTraveUer." 


120  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

the  work  to  which  they  had  been  committed  at  Anti- 
och.  It  was  not  exactly  as  they  had  hoped.  The 
Jews  had  not  responded  to  the  message  as  they  had 
wished.  But  the  Gentiles  had  heard  with  open  hearts. 
God  **had  opened  a  door  of  faith  unto  the  Gentiles" 
(14  :  27),  which  would  never  be  closed  again.  The 
church  at  Antioch  was  a  Gentile  church,  and  they  heard 
with  satisfaction  this  report  of  the  first  returned 
missionaries  of  the  world.  The  work  among  the  Greeks 
had  now  been  launched  upon  a  great  scale  and  God 
had  set  the  seal  of  his  blessing  upon  it.  Paul  and 
Barnabas  deserve  some  rest  with  the  disciples.  The 
missionary  work  with  Paul  is  now  not  a  theory  merely, 
but  a  glorious  fact.  The  Gentiles  know  the  love  of 
Jesus  and  they  will  never  forget  him.  One  of  the 
greatest  revolutions  in  human  history  has  come  about. 
Jews  and  Greeks  are  now  members  of  the  body  of 
Christ.    Will  they  dwell  in  peace  together? 


CHAPTER  VII 
PAUL'S  DOCTRINAL  CRISIS 

"That  the  truth  of  the  Gospel  might  continue  with 
you"  (Gal.  2 :  5). 

1.  The  Doctrinal  Issue  Raised  by  the  Jvdaizers. — 
The  indignation  of  the  party  of  the  circumcision  in  the 
church  at  Jerusalem  over  Peter's  conduct  at  Csesarea 
in  going  into  a  Gentile's  house  (Acts  11  :  3)  had  sub- 
sided when  they  saw  that  Peter  had  done  this  by  divine 
direction  (11  :  18).  They  acquiesced  in  the  conver- 
sion of  the  Gentiles  and  held  their  peace  for  the  present. 
Events  at  Antioch  had  already  led  them  to  send  Barna- 
bas up  there,  but  Barnabas,  instead  of  reporting  to 
the  Pharisees,  went  on  saving  the  Greeks.  The  fires 
of  prejudice  were  not  quenched,  but  were  only  smoul- 
dering. Barnabas  and  Saul  had  prudently  brought  a 
contribution  from  the  church  at  Antioch  to  the  poor 
saints  in  Jerusalem.  But  this  formal  campaign  on 
the  part  of  Paul  and  Barnabas  among  the  Greeks  was 
more  than  the  Judaizers  had  bargained  for.  They  saw 
visions  of  Gentile  Christians  who  might  outnumber 
the  Jewish  Christians,  take  charge  of  Christianity, 
and  divert  it  from  Judaism.  News  had  come  to  Jeru- 
salem of  the  great  success  of  Paul  and  Barnabas.    The 

121 


122  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

matter  had  already  been  overlooked  too  long.  Some 
of  the  Judaizers  decided  to  save  the  Kingdom  by  going 
up  to  Antioch  and  laying  down  the  law  to  Paul  and 
Barnabas.  They  had  not  obtained  the  consent  of 
the  Jerusalem  church,  the  mother  church,  for  this 
Gentile  propaganda. 

The  term  Judaizer  is  applied  technically  to  those 
Jewish  Christians  who  felt  that  the  Gentiles  could  not 
be  saved  without  becoming  also  Jews.  The  Gentiles 
must  be  Judaized  as  well  as  Christianized.  Christian- 
ity was  not  adequate  of  itself.  Judaism  must  be  added. 
Now,  originally,  before  the  vision  on  the  housetop  at 
Joppa  and  the  work  at  Csesarea,  this  had  apparently 
been  Peter's  view  also.  It  was  clearly  never  the  view 
of  Jesus  who  had  other  sheep  not  of  the  Jewish  fold 
(John  10  :  16).  In  enjoining  his  followers  to  make 
disciples  of  all  the  nations  he  had  not  said  that  they 
were  to  be  circumcised  or  Judaized  (Matt.  28  :  19  f.). 
But  the  disciples  were  Jews  first,  then  Christians. 
When  Christianity  diverged  from  Judaism,  as  it  did 
in  the  conversion  of  the  Gentiles,  they  had,  some  of 
them,  difficulty  in  shaking  off  the  Jewish  point  of  view. 
Some  of  them  continued  more  Pharisee  than  Christian. 
There  was  already  a  party  of  the  circumcision  (Acts 
11  : 2),  a  Pharisaic  party  inside  the  Jerusalem  church 
(Acts  15  : 5).  Here  is  the  origin  of  the  first  cleavage 
among  the  early  Christians.  It  springs  out  of  the 
mission  problem  as  have  so  many  divisions  in  the  cen- 
turies since  due  to  the  prejudices  of  race,   creed   or 


PAUL'S  DOCTRINAL  CRISIS  123 

custom.  It  is  the  spirit  of  Pharisaism  redivivus  in 
Christianity.  Pharisaism  had  killed  Jesus,  but  not 
Christianity.  That  attack  was  from  outside  the  fold. 
Now  the  Pharisaic  ceremonialism  lifts  its  hand  from 
inside  the  walls  to  smite  the  spiritual  conception  of 
religion.  It  is  the  eternal  conflict  between  the  spirit 
and  the  letter,  a  battle  that  rages  to-day  in  every 
Christian  land. 

Paul  knows  this  spirit  of  intolerance  better  than  the 
Judaizers  themselves.  He  had  once  been  its  foremost 
exponent.  It  is  a  curious  turn  of  the  wheeel  of  fortune 
that  the  man  who  rejoiced  in  the  death  of  Stephen 
for  preaching  spiritual  worship  independently  of  the 
temple  should  be  the  man  who  will  wage  the  great 
battle  for  Gentile  freedom.  Stephen  fought  the  fight 
for  the  spiritual  conception  of  religion  against  the 
Pharisees  (as  did  Jesus).  Paul  has  to  fight  for  the 
spiritual  gospel  against  the  Judaizers.  The  regulators 
from  Jerusalem  came  up  to  Antioch  and  put  the  matter 
bluntly:  "Except  ye  be  circumcised  after  the  custom 
of  Moses,  ye  cannot  be  saved"  (Acts  15  :  1).  There 
was  the  Christian  law  laid  down  for  the  Gentiles  by 
disciples  from  Jerusalem!  If  they  were  right  all  the 
work  of  Paul  and  Barnabas  at  Antioch  and  on  the  recent 
mission  tour  was  for  naught.  They  should  go  back 
and  Judaize  the  saints.  Would  Paul  agree  to  that  pro- 
gramme? He  had  not  so  learned  Christ.  Could  he 
be  mistaken?  If  these  men  were  right,  Christianity 
was  small  gain.     He  would  not  go  back  to  the  husks 


124  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAXIL 

of  Pharisaism  after  renouncing  it  at  so  great  cost. 
These  things  were  gain  to  him  once,  but  not  now. 
He  did  not  believe  that  Peter  and  James  held  such 
views.  He  was  sure  that  this  was  not  the  real  spirit 
of  the  Old  Testament  teaching  concerning  the  Messi- 
anic reign.  There  was  only  one  thing  to  do.  It 
would  cause  discussion.  This  was  plain.  But  he 
would  resist  any  attempt  to  bring  the  Gentiles  under 
the  bondage  of  Mosaic  ceremonial  law,  not  to  say 
Pharisaism.  He  knew  the  emptiness  of  tithing  the 
mint  and  anise  of  rabbinism.  He  loved  his  Greek 
converts  too  much  to  see  this  calamity  befall  them. 
And  he  loved  Christ  too  much  to  see  him  so  misin- 
terpreted. The  church  at  Antioch  stood  with  Paul 
and  Barnabas.  Would  there  be  a  split  on  the  issue? 
Will  the  church  at  Jerusalem  side  with  the  Judaizers  ? 
That  would  be  a  great  misfortune. 

2.  The  Appeal  to  Jerusalem. — It  was  a  solemn 
moment.  The  issue  of  Paul's  life  was  upon  him. 
Had  he  and  Barnabas  faltered,  a  Judaized  Christianity 
might  have  conquered  the  world  instead  of  a  Pauline 
or  spiritual  conception  of  the  kingdom  (Rom.  14  :  17). 
It  is  a  great  mark  of  the  true  statesman  to  see  the  real 
issues  involved  in  a  controversy.  Paul  and  Barnabas 
showed  themselves  equal  to  this  great  occasion  by  see- 
ing at  once  that  the  very  essence  of  Christianity  was 
at  stake.  Spiritual  Christianity  was  meeting  the  icy 
hand  of  formalism  and  traditionalism.  It  was  Christi- 
anity  by   itself   or   Christianity   plus   ceremonialism. 


PAUL'S  DOCTRINAL  CRISIS  125 

Paul  was  a  man  of  peace,  but  not  peace  at  any  price, 
not  peace  at  the  cost  of  principle.  The  pathos  of 
Christian  history  is  that  not  long  after  Paul's  great 
victory  was  won  this  very  perversion  of  Christianity 
did  triumph.  But  his  victory  was  not  in  vain.  The 
inspiring  record  of  what  he  here  won  is  a  constant 
challenge  to  men  to  win  and  maintain  spiritual  freedom. 
He  will  have  to  fight  the  battle  again  in  the  letter  to  the 
Galatians,  and  that  Epistle  was  Luther's  bugle-note 
in  the  Reformation. 

We  do  not  know  at  whose  suggestion  the  appeal  to 
Jerusalem  was  made.  "Paul  and  Barnabas  and  cer- 
tain others  of  them "  were  appointed  to  take  the  matter 
up  with  "the  Apostles  and  elders"  in  Jerusalem 
(Acts  15  : 2).  It  was  the  action  of  the  church  (verse 
3),  but  most  likely  Paul  really  proposed  the  matter. 
He  tells  us  himself  (Gal.  2  :  2)  that  he  "went  up  by 
revelation."  He  had  probably  gone  to  the  Lord  about 
this  great  question,  and  this  was  the  answer,  to  con- 
sult the  Jerusalem  brethren.  It  is  not  necessary  to 
make  an  elaborate  discussion  of  the  reasons  for  tak- 
ing Gal.  2  and  Acts  15  to  refer  to  the,  same  visit  to 
Jerusalem.  That  is  still  the  position  of  most  scholars.* 
There  are  diflficulties  in  this  view,  but  not  insuperable 
ones,  and  fewer  than  in  any  other.  Thus  we  take  it 
that  Luke  gives  the  story  of  the  conference  in  its  gen- 
eral aspects,  while  Paul  gives  the  story  of  the  private 
conference  which  really  gave  shape  to  the  public 
» Cf.  Findlay,  Paul  in  Hastings'  "D.  B." 


126  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

meeting.  It  is  to  be  recalled  that  Paul  wrote  first  and 
that  in  his  Epistle  he  is  discussing  the  independence  of 
his  authority.  It  was  in  the  private  meeting  that  this 
issue  came  up.  Luke  in  all  probability  never  saw 
the  Epistle  to  the  Galatians,  and  wrote  obviously 
and  naturally  about  the  general  subject.  There  is  surely 
no  real  contradiction  in  Paul's  remark  about  a  special 
revelation  to  him  and  Luke's  mention  of  the  action  of 
the  church. 

But  why  go  to  the  Jerusalem  church  at  all?  Was 
not  the  church  at  Antioch  independent  of  the  church 
in  Jerusalem?  They  had  not  asked  the  consent  or 
advice  of  the  Jerusalem  church  in  the  matter  of 
Barnabas  and  Saul's  going  on  the  mission  tour.  Why 
do  it  now?  Was  there  not  danger  of  having  a  yoke 
put  upon  their  necks?  A  number  of  common-sense 
reasons  occur  to  one.  There  must  be  no  cleavage  be- 
tween these  two  great  churches  on  this  subject.  There 
must  be  no  schism,  not  two  denominations,  one  Jewish, 
one  Gentile.  Besides,  these  Judaizers  belonged  to  the 
church  at  Jerusalem.  They  had  tried  to  get  the  church 
at  Antioch  to  take  sides  against  Paul  and  Barnabas. 
It  would  be  only  fair  to  see  if  the  Jerusalem  church 
would  not  take  a  stand  with  Paul  and  Barnabas  against 
their  own  Judaizing  members.  Moreover,  the  other 
Apostles,  the  Twelve,  were  members  of  the  church  at 
Jerusalem.  This  fact  would  necessarily  give  great 
weight  to  the  opinion  of  the  mother  church  in  the 
present  emergency.    A  concordat,  in  which  the  great 


PAUL'S  DOCTRINAL  CRISIS  127 

Jewish  church  and  the  great  Gentile  church  agreed, 
would  settle  the  matter  with  all  sensible  men.  Paul 
would  take  pains  to  make  it  plain  to  the  Apostles  and 
all  concerned  that  he  did  not  come  to  Jerusalem  to 
receive  orders  from  anybody.  He  came  to  confer  with 
them  as  equals  about  this  great  question  of  Gentile 
liberty  in  the  churches. 

To  Jerusalem  then  both  sides  go.  Paul  and  Barna- 
bas tell  the  story  of  the  conversion  of  the  Gentiles  as 
they  pass  through  Phoenicia  and  Samaria  and  cause 
great  joy  to  the  brethren  (Acts  15  :  3).  Already  there 
are  churches  here.  Naturally  no  objection  to  the 
Gentile  cause  would  be  raised  in  these  parts. 

3.  The  First  Public  Meeting  in  Jerusalem.  —  A 
general  meeting  was  called  (Acts  15  :  4)  to  hear  the 
story  of  Paul  and  Barnabas.  They  knew  how  to  tell 
it  and  it  had  a  wonderful  effect  on  the  audience.  Al- 
ready it  was  plain  that  the  church  at  Jerusalem 
sanctioned  the  work  of  God  by  the  hands  of  Paul  and 
Barnabas.  But  the  Pharisaic  party  were  not  going 
to  surrender  without  a  fight.  They  "rose  up"  saying: 
"  It  is  needful  to  circumcise  them,  and  to  charge  them 
to  keep  the  law  of  Moses"  (15  :  5).  There  it  was  I 
The  church  had  the  ipse  dixit  of  the  Pharisaic  Chris- 
tians. It  would  be  presumption  to  oppose  the  position 
of  these  intensely  orthodox  brethren.  They  sat  down. 
Somebody  must  have  moved  to  adjourn,  a  very  con- 
venient parliamentary  device  at  times,  unless  James 
adjourned  for  dinner  or  pronounced  the  benediction. 


128  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

In  verse  6  we  are  told  that  they  "were  gathered  to- 
gether to  consider  of  this  matter,"  a  reference  to  a 
second  meeting.  But  the  issue  was  sharply  joined  in 
public  at  Jerusalem.  What  will  Paul  do  now?  He 
tells  us  himself. 

4.  Paul's  Stand  for  Gentile  Liberty. — ^He  probably 
called  a  meeting  of  the  Apostles  present  and  the  elders, 
the  leading  spirits  in  the  church.  He  did  not  wish  an 
unseemly  pubHc  wrangle  with  these  Judaizers.  He 
was  no  more  concerned  about  them.  He  had  said  his 
say  to  them  at  Antioch.  Peter,  John  and  James,  in 
particular,  were  the  men  that  he  wished  to  see.  If  he 
and  they  saw  eye  to  eye,  it  mattered  little  about  the 
rest.  He  had  no  reason  to  suspect  the  position  of 
these  great  exponents  of  Christianity,  but  there  was 
nothing  like  talking  things  over  in  private.  In  a  pub- 
lic debate  there  were  all  sorts  of  chances  for  misunder- 
standing. It  was  plain  that  the  Judaizers  had  made 
some  impression  by  their  bold,  positive  stand  for  tra- 
ditional Judaism.  Paul  never  showed  greater  wisdom 
than  when  he  gathered  these  "pillars"  of  the  church 
and  "laid  before  them  the  gospel"  which  he  preached 
among  the  Gentiles  (Gal.  2  :  2).  These  men  knew 
what  Jesus  preached,  if  anybody  did.  He  had  no 
fear  of  the  outcome.  He  did  not  acknowledge  their 
superiority  to  him  at  all,  nor  had  he  received  his  message 
from  them  (2  :  6).  He  was  sure  that  they  would 
understand  his  message,  that  they  were  not  Judaizers. 
He  was  right.     "They  perceived  the  grace  that  was 


PAUL'S  DOCTRINAL  CRISIS  129 

given"  unto  Paul  (2:9),  and  they  shook  hands  all 
round  as  equals  who  agreed  on  this  great  issue  of 
Gentile  freedom.  Paul  had  carried  his  point.  PauFs 
own  apostleship  is  thus  freely  acknowledged  by  the 
other  Apostles,  though  it  will  be  later  attacked  by  the 
Judaizers.  The  rights  of  Gentile  Christianity  are 
freely  admitted. 

It  seems  clear  that  there  were  some  timid  brethren 
in  the  private  meeting,  perhaps  some  of  the  elders, 
who  were  willing  to  make  a  compromise  in  order  to 
hold  on  to  the  Judaizers.  Paul  sharply  resented  the 
idea  of  surrender  to  these  Judaizers,  "false  brethren" 
he  even  calls  them,  for  the  sake  of  peace,  "who  came 
in  privily  to  spy  out  our  liberty  which  we  have  in 
Christ  Jesus"  (verse  4).  They  took  special  umbrage 
at  the  fact  that  Paul  had  brought  along  with  him  Titus, 
a  Greek  Christian,  who  had  not  been  circumcised.  He 
had  with  him  a  live  specimen  to  illustrate  the  point  in 
dispute.  It  was  proposed  that  the  principle  could  be 
discussed  to  better  advantage  if  Titus  were  first  circum- 
cised. But  Paul  stood  his  ground  firmly  and  refused 
(verse  5,  thus  reads  this  somewhat  involved  sentence). 
"The  truth  of  the  gospel"  was  at  stake  in  the  case 
of  Titus.  The  apparent  inconsistency  of  Paul  in  cir- 
cumcising Timothy  will  be  treated  later. 

Paul  and  the  leaders  did  agree  on  a  general  sort  of 
division  of  work.  Paul  and  Barnabas  would  devote 
themselves  specially  to  the  Gentile  work,  while  James, 
Cephas  and  John  would  labor  especially  among  the 


130  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

Jews.  But  the  matter  was  not  an  absolute  division, 
as  the  future  showed.  It  was  hinted  (2  :  10)  that  Paul 
and  Barnabas  should  continue  to  remember  the  poor 
at  Jerusalem  as  they  had  been  doing.  Had  they  for- 
gotten it  this  time?  Paul  will  one  day  remember  this 
point  with  a  great  collection.  They  are  now  ready 
for  another  public  meeting.  Probably  the  programme 
of  the  proceedings  was  agreed  on  in  the  main,  for 
everything  will  now  go  smoothly.  There  is  wisdom 
for  brethren  in  responsible  positions  in  the  kingdom. 
5.  The  Victory  Over  the  Jvdaizers. — It  was  a  victory, 
not  a  compromise,  as  can  be  shown.  One  must  not 
overlook  the  "much  questioning"  (Acts  15:7)  which 
came  first  in  the  second  pubKc  gathering.  It  would 
appear  that  full  opportunity  was  given  for  the  Judaizers 
to  say  all  that  they  wished.  After  all  desire  for  public 
controversy  had  been  satisfied,  Peter  "rose  up"  and 
spoke.  The  Judaizers  would  probably  look  with  sus- 
picion on  him  since  his  experience  at  Csesarea,  but, 
still,  they  had  not  given  him  up.  He  was  the  great 
speaker  among  the  Twelve,  and  the  Judaizers  had  prob- 
ably tried  to  use  his  name  against  Paul  as  they  did  later 
in  Corinth.  His  opinion  is  bound  to  carry  weight. 
He  reminds  the  audience  how  this  is  not  a  new  matter 
at  all.  He  had  himself  been  before  the  church  once 
on  this  very  point.  They  had  all  agreed  that  the  con- 
version of  Cornelius  was  the  work  of  the  Lord,  as  shown 
by  the  bestowal  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  They  had  not  de- 
manded that  CorneHus  should  be  circumcised.    Besides, 


PAUL'S  DOCTRINAL  CRISIS  131 

they  had  not  as  Jews  been  able  to  bear  this  yoke  of 
the  law.  Why  impose  it  on  the  Gentiles?  As  Jews 
they  had  to  believe  just  as  the  Gentiles  (15 : 7-11). 
Every  word  told  in  favor  of  Paul's  contention.  Peter 
and  Paul  agree  here  as  they  do  later  in  their  Epistles 
on  the  doctrines  of  grace  and  Gentile  liberty. 

Peter's  speech  made  a  profound  impression.  No- 
body seemed  willing  to  answer  it.  Finally,  Barnabas 
and  Paul  (probably  in  this  order,  verse  12)  told  their 
story  again,  to  refresh  the  minds  and  hearts  of  the 
brethren. 

After  a  further  pause  James,  the  leading  elder 
and  apparently  the  President  of  the  Conference,  arose 
and  addressed  the  body  (15  :  14-21).  Every  one  would 
wish  to  hear  his  opinion,  for  he  was  regarded  as  thor- 
oughly Jewish.  The  Judaizers  had  hoped  to  win  him, 
as  they  later  will  use  his  name  to  frighten  Peter  (Gal. 
2  :  12).  He  seems  deliberate  and  begs  for  attention. 
He  refers  to  Symeon's  (note  the  Jewish  form  of  the 
name  as  in  2  Pet.  1:1)  speech  with  approval.  At  once 
then  he  takes  sides  with  Paul  and  Barnabas.  He 
does  a  characteristic  thing  for  a  Jew.  He  shows  how 
this  whole  matter  of  the  incoming  of  the  Gentiles 
was  foretold  in  the  Prophets  (Am.  9  :  11  f.).  That  is 
enough  for  him  after  all  that  they  have  heard  of  God*s 
blessing  and  what  they  knew  already  of  the  work  of 
God  at  Caesarea.  He  is  ready  with  his  "judgment." 
It  is  in  favor  of  letting  the  Gentiles  alone  (verse  19). 
He  offers  a  suggestion  that  this  body  send  an  epistle 


132  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

to  the  Gentiles  expressing  their  opinion  that  they  be 
careful  to  avoid  a  great  sin  to  which  they  were  specially 
subject  and  respect  the  Jewish  feelings  on  two  other 
matters.  There  was  no  need  to  worry  about  Moses. 
That  was  a  Jewish,  not  a  Gentile  problem,  and  the 
Jews  had  synagogues  everywhere.  As  yet  the  Jewish 
Christians  had  not  ceased  to  worship  in  the  synagogue 
(cf.  also  Jas.  2  : 2). 

It  was  a  powerful  plea  that  covered  the  whole  ground 
and  brought  matters  to  a  focus.  The  wonderful  part 
about  it  was  that  the  verdict  was  unanimous  in  favor 
of  the  resolution,  if  one  may  so  call  it,  of  James  (verse 
22).  One  can  hardly  suppose  that  the  Judaizers  voted 
for  it.  They  probably  remained  in  sullen  silence, 
completely  overcome,  and  in  utter  defeat.  The  pro- 
posal of  James  about  a  letter  was  agreed  to,  and  two 
leading  brethren,  Judas  and  Silas,  were  appointed 
with  Paul  and  Barnabas  to  convey  the  decision  of 
the  conference  to  Antioch  and  Syria  and  Cilicia.  The 
epistle  is  not  in  the  form  of  a  command.  James 
had  used  the  word  "judgment."  The  word  "seemed 
good"  is  the  term  used  in  the  epistle  itself  (verse  28). 
They  claim  the  guidance  of  the  Holy  Spirit  in  the 
conclusions  reached.  The  epistle  disclaims  responsi- 
bility for  the  troublesome  and  arrogant  attitude  of  the 
Judaizers  (verse  24)  and  is  very  full  of  appreciation  of 
the  work  of  Paul  and  Barnabas  (verse  25  f.).  No 
demands  are  made  of  the  Gentile  Christians  outside 
of  the  well-known  Christian  principles,  except  these 


PAUL'S  DOCTRINAL  CRISIS  133 

"necessary"  things  (verse  28).  Fornication  was  a  dire 
peril  in  the  Gentile  worid,  and  they  needed  warning  on 
that  point  (cf.  the  Epistles  later  also).  The  question 
of  meats  offered  to  idols  is  not  on  the  same  plane, 
but  can  become  in  certain  phases  of  it  a  very  serious 
matter  (cf.  I  Cor.  10  :  14-22).  It  will  give  Paul  trouble 
in  the  future.  He  did  not  regard  this  decision  as  a 
"law,"  for  in  I  Cor.  8-10  and  Rom.  14  f.  he  discusses 
the  matter  in  its  fundamental  aspects.  Some  phases  of 
the  subject  were  open  to  question.  But  he  has  won  the 
great  thing.  It  would  not  be  wise  to  stickle  over  a  small 
point.  Besides,  idolatry  was  another  ever-present 
temptation  to  the  Gentiles  (I  Cor.  10 :  14).  The 
matter  of  "things  strangled"  was  a  concession  to  Jew- 
ish feeHng  that  the  Gentiles  would  not  complain  of. 
In  fine,  the  Gentiles  were  not  to  become  Jews.  That 
was  the  great  thing.  They  were  to  be  careful  about 
fornication  and  idolatry,  their  great  temptations,  as 
they  ought  to  do.  They  could  well  afford  to  respect 
Jewish  feeling  in  a  matter  like  things  strangled.  There 
is  the  spirit  of  concession  here  and  love,  but  not  of 
compromise  of  principle.  As  to  the  actual  working  out 
of  the  matter  of  meats  offered  to  idols  that  lies  in  the 
future.  All  this  is  very  subordinate  and  relatively 
unimportant  in  the  light  of  the  victory  for  Gentile 
freedom,  for  spiritual  Christianity,  so  gloriously  won. 

One  will  be  pardoned  a  word  as  to  the  prominence 
of  James  in  this  work.  The  epistle  sent  is  much  like 
his  speech  and  may  have  been  written  by  him.     It 


134  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

has  often  been  noted  how  both  speech  and  epistle  re- 
semble the  Epistle  of  James  written  by  the  same  noble 
man,  and  probably  just  before  this  conference.  He 
makes  no  attacks  on  real  Judaism,  but  he  takes  his 
stand  with  Paul  and  Peter  for  liberty  and  progress. 

6.  The  Reception  of  the  Victory  at  Antioch. — ^They 
were  naturally  jubilant  in  this  Greek  centre  that  the 
Jerusalem  church  had  taken  their  view  of  the  situ- 
ation (Acts  15:30-35).  It  was,  indeed,  a  "consola- 
tion" not  to  have  a  schism,  for  the  Greeks  would  not 
become  Jews.  Judas  and  Silas  were  prophets  and 
gave  vent  to  many  words.  It  was  a  good  time  all 
round.  They  at  last  returned  to  Jerusalem,  while 
Paul  and  Barnabas  and  many  others  went  on  preach- 
ing the  Word. 

7.  Peter^s  Temporary  Defection  at  Antioch. — It  is 
Paul  who  tells  this  painful  incident  (Gal.  2  :  11-21). 
He  does  it  only  to  show  his  independence  of  the  other 
Apostles,  not  to  cast  reflection  on  Peter.  But  it  was 
the  sequel  of  the  battle  for  Gentile  freedom,  indeed  the 
same  struggle  renewed  in  another  form.  In  the  course 
of  time  Peter  came  up  to  Antioch  to  see  how  this  great 
work  went.  The  wonder  is  that  he  had  not  come 
sooner.  But  he  was  now  publicly  aligned  with  Paul 
and  Barnabas  and  he  could  come  with  no  possible 
misunderstanding.  Peter's  impulsive  nature  went  the 
whole  way  this  time.  He  "ate  with  the  Gentiles." 
He  had  done  this  with  apologies  to  Cornelius  (Acts 
10 :  28;  11:3),  but  now  he  made  no  excuses  about  it. 


PAUL'S  DOCTRINAL  CRISIS  135 

He  acted  just  like  Paul  and  Barnabas.  The  Jerusalem 
conference  had  not  passed  on  the  question  of  social 
usages  between  Jewish  and  Gentile  Christians.  So 
the  Judaizers  have  fresh  cause  for  a  quarrel  if  they 
wish  it. 

Perhaps  news  of  what  Peter  is  doing  comes  to  Jeru- 
salem. The  Judaizers  are  quick  to  see  the  chance  to 
reopen  the  controversy  which  had  not  been  settled  to 
please  them.  As  before,  so  now  they  come  up  with 
assertion  of  infallibility  and  authority.  They  claim 
to  be  "from  James."  The  claim  need  not  be  true 
because  they  made  it.  We  know  that  James  had  agreed 
with  Paul  at  Jerusalem.  It  is  possible,  of  course,  that 
some  of  the  brethren  may  have  asked  James  before 
they  left  if  they  thought  Jews  ought  to  have  cordial 
social  relations  with  Gentiles,  and  may  have  received 
a  negative  reply.  We  know  that  later  (Acts  21 :  20  if.) 
he  is  anxious  for  Paul  to  disabuse  the  minds  of  the 
brethren  of  the  charge  that  Paul  opposed  the  main- 
tenance of  the  Mosaic  customs  on  the  part  of  Jewish 
Christians.  But  I  do  not  believe  that  James  sent  a 
message  of  condemnation  of  Peter's  conduct  in  eating 
with  the  Gentiles. 

But,  when  confronted  by  the  Judaizers  with  the 
threat  to  tell  James  about  it,  Peter  changed  his  conduct, 
though  not  his  convictions.  It  was  a  piece  of  cowardice, 
like  his  dreadful  denial  of  Jesus  to  the  servants  of  the 
high  priest.  "He  drew  back  and  separated  himself, 
fearing  them  that  were  of  the  circumcision."    He  was; 


136  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

not  brave  enough  to  face  possible  social  ostracism 
in  Jerusalem  or  another  trouble  in  the  church  there 
(Acts  11  :3).  Paul  felt  very  strongly  on  the  subject. 
He  charged  Peter  with  hypocrisy  and  not  standing  to 
his  real  convictions.  Peter  "stood  condemned"  when 
Paul  "resisted  him  to  the  face."  Poor  Peter.  He  can 
now  answer  neither  Greek  nor  Judaizer. 

The  worst  of  it  was  that  all  the  other  Jews  followed 
Peter's  example.  If  it  was  wrong  for  Peter,  it  was 
wrong  for  them.  Paul  and  Barnabas  stood  alone. 
They  had  lived  with  the  Gentiles  apparently  on  the 
tour  as  well  as  in  Antioch.  But  soon  Barnabas  also 
deserted  Paul.  It  was  the  first  break  that  had  come 
between  Paul  and  Barnabas.  This  was  a  cut,  indeed, 
to  the  quick.  It  was  hard  to  stand  up  against  Peter 
and  call  him  "Judaizer"  "before  them  all"  (2  :  14). 
He  expounded  to  Peter  the  fundamental  gospel  prin- 
ciple of  justification  by  faith  (15-21)  to  help  him  see 
his  inconsistency.  It  was  Paul  contra  mundum.  Sup- 
pose he  had  faltered  ?  The  victory  of  Gentile  freedom 
would  have  been  seriously  endangered  if  not  lost. 
Eternal  vigilance  is  indeed  the  price  of  liberty.  But 
PauFs  boldness  won  back  both  Peter  and  Barnabas. 
They  afterward  are  on  friendly  terms  with  Paul. 
This  passage  in  Galations  really  presents  the  essential 
ideas  of  the  Pauline  theology  which  Paul  explained  to 
Peter,  "for  if  righteousness  is  through  the  law,  then 
Christ  died  for  naught"  (verse  21).  If  Moses  must  be 
added  to  Christ,  Moses  is  greater  than  Christ.    Indeed 


PAUUS  DOCTRINAL  CRISIS  137 

Christ  in  that  case  made  a  useless  sacrifice  of  himself. 
The  Judaizers,  in  truth,  "  belonged  more  to  Moses  than 
to  Jesus."  ^  Peter  had  to  face  "the  overwhelming  di- 
lemma" that  either  faith  in  Christ  was  sufficient  or  it 
was  not  sufficient.^  In  fact,  he  had  already  faced  that 
question  (Acts  15  :  10  f.).  Paul  now  sharply  brought 
him  back  to  the  light. 

8.  The  Controversy  Reopened. — ^The  Judaizers  are 
greatly  encouraged  at  the  momentary  sympathy  on 
this  point  which  they  had  obtained  from  Peter  and 
Barnabas.  They  see  a  new  line  of  battle.  It  is  to 
isolate  Paul,  to  drive  a  wedge  in  between  him  and  the 
Jerusalem  Apostles.  They  will  claim  at  Corinth  to 
have  letters  from  the  Apostles  (II  Cor.  3:1).  They 
will  undertake  some  missionary  work  on  their  own 
account,  "a  counter-mission."^  They  lost  at  the 
Jerusalem  conference,  but  they  have  made  headway 
at  Antioch.  They  will  appeal  to  PauFs  own  converts 
on  the  field  and  seek  to  shake  his  authority  with  them. 
They  will  use  the  concessions  at  Jerusalem  to  Paul's 
hurt.  Henceforth  a  double  campaign  will  be  waged 
over  the  world.  Paul  and  his  coadjutors  will  carry 
the  gospel  from  province  to  province  in  the  Roman 
Empire.  The  Judaizers  will  follow  in  his  train  and 
dog  his  steps,  maligning  his  name  and  preaching  the 
gospel  of  ceremonialism,  while  Paul  proclaims  the  gos- 
pel of  grace.    Paul  will  win  the  lost  to  Christ.    The 

»  Sabatier,  "The  Apostle  Paul,"  p.  126. 

» Ihid.,  p.  131.  '  lUd.,  p.  135. 


138  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

Judaizers  will  seek  to  save  the  saved,  to  rescue  them 
from  PauUnism  and  save  them  to  Pharisaic  orthodoxy. 
They  will  have  only  too  great  success  in  Galatia  and 
Corinth.  Paul  will  go  on  with  foes  in  front  and  in 
the  rear. 


CHAPTER  Vin 

PAUL  ANSWERS  THE  CRY  OF  EUROPE 
"Come  over  into  Macedonia  and  help  us"  (Acts  16 :  9). 

1.  The  Break  with  Barnabas. — ^The  missionary  fever 
soon  returned  to  Paul.  He  must  go  out  again.  So 
he  proposes  to  Barnabas  that  they  visit  the  churches 
which  they  had  established.  Manifestly  Paul  and 
Barnabas  are  on  good  terms  again.  Barnabas  has 
come  back  to  PauFs  view  in  the  matter  of  social  rela- 
tions with  the  Gentiles.  Paul  was  too  great  a  soul  to 
cherish  against  one  a  temporary  lapse  Kke  that.  He 
had  confidence  in  Barnabas,  as  in  Peter,  in  spite  of  their 
faltering  before  the  Judaizers.  It  is  possible,  how- 
ever, that  Barnabas  was  a  Uttle  sensitive  on  the  score 
of  PauPs  rebuke.  It  had,  perhaps,  brought  up  sharply 
the  whole  story  of  Paul's  forging  ahead  of  him  in  the 
work.  But  the  recent  unpleasantness  made  it  neces- 
sary for  Paul  to  take  the  initiative.  They  do  not  now 
wait  for  another  revelation  of  the  Holy  Spirit  to  spur 
them  on.     Barnabas  agreed  and  all  seemed  well. 

But  Barnabas  made  an  unfortunate  suggestion,  that 

they  try  Mark  again.     One  can  see  very  easily  how 

Barnabas  would  wish  to  give  his  kinsman  another 

chance.    He  would  reason  that  he  was  young,  that  the 

139 


140  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

experience  had  taught  him  a  lesson,  and  that  he  felt 
sure  that  Mark  would  be  faithful  this  time.  Paul 
undoubtedly  wished  Mark  well,  but  he  did  not  wish 
to  experiment  with  him  a  second  time.  The  risk  was 
too  great  in  a  work  of  this  nature.  Let  Mark  first 
show  himself  a  man  by  sticking  to  his  work.  Judg- 
ment of  men  is  a  very  difiicult  matter,  but  very  essential 
to  success.  People  inevitably  have  the  right  to  differ 
about  personal  Ukes  and  dislikes.  One  need  not  de- 
cide who  was  right  here,  Paul  or  Barnabas.  There 
was  something  to  say  on  both  sides.  The  contention 
between  them  was  "sharp,"  as  is  common  in  personal 
matters.  It  is  a  sad  story  at  best.  If  it  were  the  only 
case  in  Christian  history!  "They  parted  asunder  one 
from  the  other"  (Acts  15  :  39).  Henceforth  Paul  and 
Barnabas  never  work  together. 

They  will  work  separately.  They  agree  to  disagree. 
They  drop  the  matter  and  do  not  nag  each  other. 
Paul  will  later  allude  to  Barnabas  (I  Cor.  9  : 6)  in  a 
most  pleasant  way,  showing  that  he  bore  no  resentment 
and  that  Barnabas  was  still  at  work.  Luke  drops 
Barnabas  from  his  story,  for  he  will  follow  Paul.  One 
could  wish  for  more  knowledge  of  this  generous  spirit 
who  did  so  much  for  Paul  and  for  Christ.  It  is 
always  pathetic  to  see  estrangement  come  between  two 
who  have  been  so  much  to  each  other. 

Barnabas  takes  Mark  and  goes  to  Cyprus,  his  old 
home.  Mark  will  learn  his  lesson.  He  doubtless  was 
humiliated  by  Paul's  refusal  to  take  him  along.     But 


PAUL  ANSWERS  THE  CRY  OF  EUROPE       141 

it  did  him  good.  Later  he  will  be  of  service  to  Peter 
(I  Pet.  5  :  13)  and  to  Paul  (Philem.  24;  Col.  4  :  10; 
II  Tim.  4:11).  A  young  minister  can  overcome  his 
failings.  Mark  the  ineflScient  becomes  Mark  the  use- 
ful to  Paul  for  ministry.  But  the  world  looks  drear 
for  Barnabas  and  Mark  as  they  leave  Antioch.  The 
sympathy  of  the  church  is  with  Paul  (Acts  15  :  40). 

2.  Paul's  New  Campaign  with  Silas. — Silas  (Latin 
Silvanus)  had  shown  himself  in  full  sympathy  with 
Paul  at  Jerusalem  and  Antioch.  He  was  a  prophet 
and  apparently  of  more  age  and  force  than  Mark.  In- 
deed, he  takes  the  place  of  Barnabas,  not  Mark.^  Paul 
turns  to  the  other  part  of  the  former  tour,  since  Barna- 
bas had  gone  to  Cyprus.  They  pass  through  some  of 
the  churches  of  Syria  as  they  go  by  land  on  toward 
Galatia  by  a  more  direct  way  than  in  the  former  trip. 
Both  here  and  in  Cilicia  Paul  had  already  labored  so 
that  he  will  have  a  cordial  welcome  (Gal.  1  :  21  f.). 
He  strengthened  the  churches. 

Ramsay  ^  suggests  that  Luke  fails  to  make  any  com- 
ment on  the  realm  of  Antiochus  between  Cilicia  and 
Derbe  (in  Galatia)  since  it  was  "non-Roman  territory 
and  out  of  Paul's  plans."  Already,  according  to 
Ramsay,  Paul  has  the  purpose  of  converting  the 
Roman  Empire  to  Christ. 

3.  Lystra:  Finding  of  Timothy. — No  incident  is 
mentioned  at  Derbe  when  Paul  comes  upon  the  track 

» Ramsay,  "  St.  Paul  the  Traveller,"  p.  177. 
» Ramsay,  "St.  Paul  the  Traveller,"  p.  179. 


142  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

of  his  previous  journey,  but  at  Lystra  Paul  finds  an- 
other companion  for  his  work.  Timothy  was  a  child 
of  Paul's  in  the  Gospel  (I  Tim.  1:2).  His  mother, 
a  Jewess,  had  also  believed,  but  his  father,  a  Greek, 
is  not  said  to  be  a  Christian.  Already  Timothy  has 
a  good  reputation  both  in  Lystra  and  Iconium  (Acts 
16 : 2).  It  is  a  great  thing  to  discover  a  preacher. 
Paul  made  no  mistake  in  choosing  Timothy  to  go  with 
him.  He  will  never  flicker  as  Mark  had  done.  This 
young  man  will  be  one  of  the  chief  joys  of  Paul's  min- 
istry. Timothy  agrees  to  go,  but  Paul  first  has  him 
circumcised  so  that  he  will  not  be  obnoxious  to  the 
Jews.  The  case  is  not  similar  to  that  of  Titus,  who 
was  a  pure  Greek.  Timothy,  being  half  Jew  and  half 
Greek,  was  in  an  anomalous  position.  So  he  became 
a  Jew  also.  No  matter  of  principle  was  involved  in 
his  case  and  prudential  reasons  ruled. 

4.  Paul  Lives  up  to  the  Jerusalem  Agreement. — 
They  proceed  on  the  journey  and  deliver  *'the  de- 
crees to  keep  which  had  been  ordained  of  the  Apostles 
and  elders  that  were  at  Jerusalem"  (Acts  16  :4). 
They  had  been  duplicated  so  that  a  copy  could  be  left 
in  each  church.  The  decree  or  decision  would  come 
in  well  if  any  effort  should  be  made  to  enforce  Judaism 
on  them.  Paul  delivered  this  document  after  he  had 
had  Timothy  circumcised,  evidently  seeing  no  contra- 
diction between  the  two.  The  epistle  was  not  meant 
as  a  law  to  bind  the  Gentiles.  It  was  rather  a  charter 
of  freedom  from   Judaism.    The  Gentile  Christians 


PAUL  ANSWERS  THE  CRY  OF  EUROPE   143 

were  already,  of  course,  opposing  idolatry  and  fornica- 
tion. They  show  no  reluctance  to  agree  to  Jewish 
feeling  about  meats  offered  to  idols  and  things  strangled. 
The  trouble  at  Corinth  about  meats  offered  to  idols 
comes  after  the  Judaizers  have  been  there  and  brings 
up  aspects  of  the  subject  not  contemplated  in  the 
Jerusalem  epistle.  But  Paul  is  not  allowing  the  fact 
that  the  Judaizers  had  reopened  the  controversy  at 
Antioch  on  the  ground  of  social  relations  with  the 
Gentiles  to  keep  him  from  loyal  adherence  to  the  agree- 
ment made  in  Jerusalem.  Ramsay^  thinks  that  the 
Judaizers  will  later  use  these  decrees  and  Paul's  circum- 
cision of  Timothy  as  an  argument  for  their  contention. 
Hence  he  thinks  Paul  soon  ceased  to  say  anything 
more  about  the  decrees.  The  Galatians  were  led  to 
desert  Paul,  he  argues. 

5.  Hedged  in  by  the  Spirit  of  Jesus. — "And  they  went 
through  the  region  of  Phrygia  and  Galatia,  having  been 
forbidden  of  the  Holy  Spirit  to  speak  the  word  in 
Asia"  (Acts  16  :6).  Few  historical  statements  in  Acts 
have  caused  more  comment  over  the  geographical 
details.  The  natural  way  of  taking  this  passage  is 
that  Paul  has  in  verse  5  finished  the  region  of  Lyca- 
onia  (South  Galatia),  and  had  planned  to  go  into 
Asia  (Roman  province)  to  the  west,  probably  aiming 
to  go  on  to  Ephesus.  But  the  Holy  Spirit  forbade  that. 
Hence  he  turned  north-west  through  the  Phrygio- 
Galatic  region.  This  is  the  normal  way  to  understand 
»  "St.  Paul  the  TraveUer,"  p.  182  f. 


144  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

the  correct  Greek  text.  He  went  on  into  another 
part  of  the  province  of  Galatia  after  leaving  South 
Galatia.  It  is  still  a  question  whether  "the  region  of 
Phrygia  and  Galatia"  means  the  Phrygian  part  of  the 
Galatic  province  rather  than  the  Phrygian  part  of  the 
Asian  province,  in  addition  to  Galatia.  The  margin 
of  the  American  Revision  has  "  Phrygia  and  the  region 
of  Galatia,"  which  would  imply  two  separate  parts 
rather  than  two  names  for  one  region.  According  to  this 
view  Paul  went  north  through  the  Phrygian  region  after 
leaving  Lycaonia  and  went  on  into  Galatia  proper 
(old  Galatia).  According  to  the  other  view  he  may 
not  have  touched  old  or  North  Galatia  at  all,  or  he 
may  have  gone  through  only  the  western  side  of  Galatia 
proper.  This  latter  modification  (North-western  Ga- 
latia) is  the  view  of  Findlay  in  his  article  on  Paul  in 
Hastings'  "D.  B."  It  is  just  one  of  those  questions 
that  may  never  be  settled  satisfactorily,  though  a  turn 
of  the  spade  some  day  may  put  the  matter  at  rest. 
Ramsay  has  ably  advocated  the  position  that  Paul  never 
entered  Galatia  proper  (North  Galatia)  at  all,  but  only 
Lycaonia,  Pisidia,  and  Phrygia.  Then  he  wrote  only 
to  the  churches  of  South  Galatia.  This  view  has 
many  attractions,  but  still  has  grave  critical  difficulties 
in  its  way.  To  be  sure,  Paul  may  have  gone  on  this 
trip  to  Galatia  (the  western  end)  and  still  have  written 
only  to  South  Galatia.  But  it  remains  true  that  the 
incidental  manner  in  which  Luke,  in  Acts  16 : 6  f., 
mentions  the  journey  suits  best  the  accidental  way 


PAUL  ANSWERS  THE  CRY  OF  EUROPE   145 

in  which  Paul  comes  to  preach  to  the  readers  of  the 
Epistle  (Gal.  4  :  13).  But  the  question  is  too  large 
for  minute  discussion  in  this  volume,  though  I  still 
think  that  Paul  probably  had  the  real  Galatians  in 
mind  in  his  Epistle,  to  whom  he  went  for  the  first  time 
in  the  second  missionary  tour.  We  know  from  the 
Galatian  Epistles  that  he  had  success  with  them  and 
was  kindly  treated  by  the  volatile  Celts  (Gal.  4  :  14  f.). 

Luke  seems  to  hurry  over  this  portion  of  the  trip 
in  the  desire  to  reach  Troas.  Ramsay^  may  be  right 
also  in  suggesting  that  the  desertion  of  the  Galatians 
led  Paul  to  say  little  about  them  to  Luke.  Findlay 
finds  the  explanation  of  Luke's  silence  about  the 
North  Galatian  work  in  the  fact  that  it  was  off  the 
main  line  and  a  sort  of  "parenthesis"  in  PauFs  labors. 
It  is  clear  that  the  northern  part  of  the  province  of 
Galatia  (or  north-western)  was  reached,  because  Paul 
tried  to  go  on  into  Bithynia.  Here  he  was  debarred 
again  by  the  Spirit  of  Jesus.  Two  rebuffs  on  the  same 
trip  would  have  discouraged  some  men.  Paul  was  not 
allowed  to  go  west  into  Asia,  nor  north  into  Bithynia. 
But  he  had  no  notion  of  turning  back  home  in  disgust. 
He  pushed  on  to  the  north-west  through  the  edge  of 
Asia  by  Mysia  to  Troas.  He  was  pressed  by  the  Spirit, 
not  backward,  but  forward. 

6.  The  Macedonian  Call  and  Luke.— Troas  was  full 
of  memories  of  Europe  which  it  faced.  This  region 
was  that  of  Priam  and  Agamemnon,  of  Xerxes,  of  Julius 
»  "St.  Paul  the  Traveller,"  p.  183  f. 


146  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

Caesar,  of  Alexander.  Once  the  European  conqueror 
of  Asia  stopped  here,  but  Conybeare  and  Howson^  do 
not  put  it  too  strongly  when  they  say  that  we  are  more 
concerned  with  the  memories  of  Paul  than  of  Alexander. 
In  a  sense  Alexander's  conquest  of  Asia  made  possible 
PauPs  conquest  of  Europe  for  Christ.  The  triumph  of 
the  Greek  culture  had  unified  the  world.  Roman  sway 
had  conserved  the  Greek  culture.  Both  Roman  power 
and  Greek  culture  are  the  servants  and  agents  of  Paul 
as  he  stands  upon  the  shores  of  the  Mgesm  Sea  and  faces 
the  problem  of  Europe.  It  is  one  of  those  eras  in 
history  which  give  one  pause.  One  can  but  wonder 
what  might  have  been  the  result  if  Paul  had  not  pushed 
on  to  Troas,  but  had  turned  back  to  Cappadocia  and 
Pontus,  to  Armenia  and  Babylonia,  to  India  and 
China.  Others  might  in  time  have  carried  the  gospel 
westward,  as  some  did  to  Rome.  But  if  the  stamp  of 
Paul  were  removed  from  Macedonia,  Achaia,  and  Rome, 
Christian  history  would  not  have  run  the  same  course. 
Paul  had  visions  at  great  crises  in  his  ministry.  It 
has  been  suggested  that  in  this  vision  the  man  of 
Macedonia  was  in  reality  Luke  who  lived  in  Philippi. 
A  merely  natural  explanation  will  hardly  meet  the 
demands  of  the  language  in  Acts  16  : 9,  though  Luke 
may  have  had  his  home  in  Philippi  and  may  have 
spoken  to  Paul  on  the  subject  of  the  needs  of  Mace- 
donia.    The  vision  was  clearly  a  call  of  God  to  Paul. 

» "Life  and  Epistles  of  St.  Paul,"  p.  280  of  Vol.  I  Scribner's 
edition. 


PAUL  ANSWERS  THE  CRY  OF  EUROPE       147 

What  should  he  do  ?  It  was  a  venture  to  go  to  a  new 
continent  among  a  strange  people.  He  had  no  ex- 
amples to  guide  him.  But  it  was  in  line  with  his  mis- 
sion to  the  Gentiles. 

Paul  took  the  brethren  into  his  confidence.  He 
told  Silas,  Timothy,  and  Luke.  We  have  not  had 
Luke's  presence  in  the  story  before  and  it  is  revealed 
here  by  the  use  of  "we"  and  "us"  (Acts  16  :  10). 
Where  Luke  joined  the  party  we  are  not  told.  It  is 
possible,  though  pure  conjecture,  that  this  "beloved 
physician "  (Col.  4  :  14)  may  have  saved  Paul's  life 
during  his  sickness  in  Galatia  (Gal.  4  :  13).  But  the 
appearance  of  this  Gentile  Christian  (one  of  Paul's 
new  converts  ?)  on  the  scene  is  an  event  of  the  first  im- 
portance in  the  Hfe  of  Paul.  He  will  not,  indeed,  be 
with  Paul  constantly,  though  he  is  in  the  story  in  Acts 
steadily,  from  Acts  20  : 5  to  the  end,  as  well  as  from 
16  :  10  to  PhiHppi  (the  "we"  sections).  He  is  with 
Paul  in  Rome  in  both  of  his  imprisonments  (Col.  4  :  14; 
II  Tim.  3:11).  He  is  Paul's  best  interpreter  (after 
his  own  Epistles)  as  well  as  one  of  the  historians  of 
Jesus.  He  brings  a  literary  quality  to  -the  study  of 
original  Christianity,  in  the  case  of  both  Jesus  and  the 
disciples,  that  is  extremely  valuable.  He  is,  in  truth, 
the  first  church  historian  as  Paul  is  the  first  Christian 
theologian.  But  he  never  obtrudes  himself.  We 
merely  know  that  now  he  is  giving  us  what  he  has 
learned  first  hand  by  his  own  experience. 

The  problem  raised  was  not  merely  one  of  revelation, 


148  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

though  it  was  that.  It  was  one  of  reason  also.  It  was 
an  issue  that  had  to  be  faced  with  the  best  judgment 
to  be  had.  It  called  for  sober  criticism.  It  did  not 
occur  to  Paul  to  go  back  to  Jerusalem  to  get  an  opinion 
on  the  vision  from  the  brethren  there.  He  acted  on  the 
judgment  of  those  with  him.  The  result  of  the  in- 
vestigation was  the  conclusion  (o-u/xyStySafoz/Te?)  that 
God  had  called  the  whole  party  (*'us")  to  preach 
the  gospel  in  Macedonia.  Duty  followed  interpreta- 
tion. 

They  start  and  make  a  straight  course  to  Samothrace. 
The  next  day  they  are  at  Neapolis  (Newtown),  the  sea- 
port of  PhiUppi.  It  is  a  quick  trip.  The  thing  is  done. 
This  Rubicon  has  been  crossed.  A  great  forward 
step  in  the  history  of  Christianity  has  been  taken.  It 
is  a  noble  company,  these  four,  who  step  upon  virgin 
soil  and  grapple  with  the  tremendous  problem  of 
establishing  the  gospel  among  the  mighty  Greeks  in 
their  own  home.  Macedonia  and  Greece  are  prac- 
tically one  from  this  point  of  view.  The  history  of 
Europe  will  largely  turn  upon  the  success  of  this  cam- 
paign. The  Greeks  were  the  teachers  of  Rome.  Ram- 
say observes  that  in  saving  the  Roman  Empire  for 
Christ  Paul  was  really  preserving  it  from  decay  by 
putting  a  new  vital  force  within  it,  a  force  that  made 
for  peace  and  for  progress. 

7.  Philippi:  Lydia  and  the  Jailer. — Paul  is  now  in 
the  Roman  province  of  Macedonia,  the  land  of  Philip, 
of  Alexander  the   Great,   of  Aristotle.    The  city  of 


PAUL  ANSWERS  THE  CRY  OF  EUROPE      149 

Philippi  was  a  colony  of  Rome  (Acts  16  :  12  ).  It  had 
been  started  as  a  military  post  and  was  still  largely  so, 
though  commercial  interests  were  large.  Luke  does 
not  claim  that  Philippi  was  the  first  city  (Acts  16  :  17) 
in  the  province,  for  Thessalonica  would  challenge  that 
claim.  Even  in  the  district  Ramsay  Hhinks  that  prob- 
ably AmphipoUs  still  had  the  lead  of  Philippi  in  public 
opinion,  though  Philippi  was  "first  by  its  own  consent" 
and  was  rapidly  forging  ahead.  Ramsay  thinks  also 
that  Luke,  being  a  citizen  of  Phihppi  "had  the  true 
Greek  pride  in  his  own  city"  and  took  Philippics 
side  in  the  rivalry  between  them.  Did  Paul  know 
of  the  famous  battle  here  in  B.C.  42,  when  Brutus 
and  Cassius  went  down  before  Antony,  Octavius  and 
Lepidus  (the  second  triumvirate)  ?  He  is  on  historic 
ground. 

Where  should  Paul  begin  the  European  campaign? 
He  seems  to  have  waited  some  days  (Acts  16  :  12)  to 
find  out  where  he  could  take  hold.  The  Jews  seemed 
to  be  few,  since  it  was  largely  a  military  city.  No 
synagogue  is  mentioned.  But  Paul  knew  well  what 
the  habits  of  the  Jews  were.  Their  ablutions  required 
water.  Did  Luke  give  Paul  any  clew  ?  At  any  rate  they 
went  out  of  town,  down  by  the  river-side  (Gaggitas  ?), 
"where  we  supposed  there  was  a  place  of  prayer." 
It  was  not  a  very  encouraging  field  for  a  beginning. 
Besides,  they  found  only  a  handful  of  women.  Com- 
pare Jesus  at  Jacob's  Well  in  John  4:6.  Paul  made 
»  "St.  Paul  the  TraveUer,"  p.  206  f. 


150  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

the  best  of  the  situation.  Curiously  enough,  Lydia 
was  herself  from  Thyatira  of  the  province  of  Asia, 
in  which  province  Paul  had  recently  been  forbidden 
to  labor.  God  opened  the  heart  of  this  Jewish  mer- 
chant woman,  as  well  as  the  hearts  of  her  employees. 
The  work  of  Christ  in  this  great  European  campaign 
begins  with  a  handful  of  humble  women.  Thank 
God  that  the  women  can  be  enhsted  for  Christ  even 
if  gold  still  grips  the  souls  of  men.  Her  home  was 
opened  to  the  brethren,  and  the  place  of  prayer  by  the 
river  became  PauFs  pulpit  for  Philippi. 

It  was  not  long  before  trouble  came.  It  is  impossible 
for  a  minister,  who  is  always  loyal  to  Christ,  to  keep  out 
of  trouble.  Ramsay*  considers  the  girl  who  was  con- 
verted under  Paul's  preaching  merely  a  ventriloquist, 
but  one  who  herself  believed  that  she  had  "a  spirit  of 
divination."  The  trouble  with  this  otherwise  possible 
explanation  of  the  "python"  is  that  Luke  represents 
Paul  as  addressing  the  spirit  and  ordering  it  to  come 
out  of  the  girl  (Acts  16  :  18).  We  have  thus  a  case 
parallel  to  the  demoniacs  who  bore  testimony  to  Jesus. 
But,  whatever  the  explanation,  her  masters  ceased  to 
make  money  out  of  the  poor  girl's  misfortune.  They 
seemed  to  have  organized  a  regular  company  that 
traded  with  her  gift  of  divination.  Paul  and  Silas 
had  touched  the  pockets  of  these  men,  and  they  rose 
in  wrath  against  the  new  preachers  who  had  interfered 
with  their  vested  rights.  The  lottery,  the  saloon,  the 
»  "St.  Paul  the  Traveller,"  p.  215  f. 


PAUL  ANSWERS  THE  CRY  OF  EUROPE       151 

gambling  hells  of  modem  life  have  all  made  like  com- 
plaint against  courageous  ministers  of  Christ. 

The  attack  seems  to  have  been  rough,  for  they 
"dragged"  Paul  and  Silas  before  the  rulers  (apxovre;) 
or  magistrates  (crrpaTTjyoL  praetors).  Luke  uses  both 
terms,  the  general  and  the  Latin,  perhaps  using  the 
mixed  language  of  conversation.*  It  is  an  old  and  ever 
new  story  that  here  follows.  These  infamous  men 
blandly  pose  as  Roman  patriots  and  seek  to  arouse 
Gentile  prejudice  against  Paul  and  Silas  as  Jews,  not 
knowing  any  special  difference  between  Christians 
and  Jews.  They  say  nothing,  of  course,  about  their 
private  grudge,  but  their  patriotism  is  for  revenue  only. 
The  "trouble"  to  the  "city"  was  what  had  come 
to  the  masters  of  the  girl.  But  the  demagogues  had 
all  too  much  success  with  the  rabble,  and  the  magis- 
trates, like  Pilate  before  them,  yielded  to  popular 
clamor  and  ordered  the  prisoners,  after  a  flogging,  to 
stocks  and  the  inner  prison. 

That  night  in  the  Gentile  prison  was  a  new  ex- 
perience for  Paul.  He  was  to  have  many  more  like 
it  in  the  future.  The  joy  of  Paul  and^ilas  is  note- 
worthy. Paul  will  one  day  write  out  of  a  prison  in 
Rome  to  the  church  at  Philippi  an  Epistle  full  of 
cheer.  Ramsay^  explains  that  an  earthquake  would 
easily  open   an   Eastern   prison,   while  the  prisoners 

*  Ramsay,  "St.  Paul  the  Traveller,"  p.  217.  Ramsay  thinks 
it  uncertain  whether  these  "Masters"  were  themselves  Romans 
■ince  the  majority  of  the  population  were  Greeks. 

>  "St.  Paul  the  TraveUer,"  p.  224  f. 


152  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

would  be  overawed  by  the  effect  of  that  portent.  Paul 
is  quick  to  seize  the  opportunity  of  the  jailer's  con- 
viction, to  win  him  from  suicide  to  salvation. 

The  magistrates  possibly  felt  that  Paul  had  caused 
the  earthquake.  At  any  rate,  they  wish  to  be  rid  of 
these  strange  prisoners.  It  is  not  clear  why  Paul  did 
not  claim  Roman  citizenship  before  the  flogging.  No 
explanation  is  given  by  Luke.  In  the  heat  and  ex- 
citement of  the  moment  it  is  possible  that  Paul  may 
not  have  thought  of  it  till  later.  Indeed  the  mob  and 
the  magistrates  gave  Paul  no  time  for  explanation.  He 
will  appeal  to  it  in  Acts  22.  But,  at  any  rate,  Paul  shows 
plenty  of  independence  when  the  magistrates  wish  him  to 
help  them  out  of  their  dilemma.  Silas  is  called  a  Roman 
citizen  also  by  Paul  (Acts  16  :  37).  Ramsay^  thinks 
that  Luke  has  mistranslated  PauFs  Latin  to  the 
magistrates  when  he  claimed  his  Roman  citizenship, 
since  the  condemnation  of  a  Roman  citizen  would  not 
alleviate  the  flogging,  but  make  it  worse.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  argument  in  Paul's  mind  may  have  gone  thus. 
It  is  unlawful  to  flog  any  one  uncondemned;  besides, 
it  was  done  publicly;  then  again  we  are  Romans  and 
it  was  unlawful  to  do  it  at  all;  to  cap  it  all  they  have 
put  us  into  prison.  The  argument  about  "Romans" 
thus  is  not  the  first  one,  but  toward  the  end.  It  is 
the  magistrates  who  are  now  afraid.  They  show  proper 
courtesy  now.  Paul  and  Silas  leave  Luke  and  Timothy 
behind  in  Philippi  with  a  church  fully  established. 
»  "  St.  Paul  the  Traveller,"  p.  224  f. 


PAUL  ANSWERS  THE  CRY  OF  EUROPE      153 

8.  Thessalonica:  The  Excitable  Populace, — ^Thessa- 
lonica  is  the  capital  of  the  province  of  Macedonia  and 
the  most  important  city  that  Paul  has  come  to  since 
Antioch/  It  is  the  Roman  administrative  city  and  a 
great  commercial  emporium  (the  present  Saloniki). 
The  Jews  are  strong  here.  In  their  synagogue  Paul 
preached  on  three  successive  Sabbaths  (compare 
the  two  at  Antioch  in  Pisidia  (Acts  13 :  44).  One  is 
constrained  to  think  from  PauPs  remarks  in  I  Thess. 
1  and  2  that  he  preached  in  the  city  much  longer 
than  this.  Perhaps  Luke's  account  is  confined  to  the 
work  in  the  synagogue  alone. 

PauPs  preaching  followed  the  familiar  line  of  argu- 
ment for  Jews  in  an  appeal  to  the  Scriptures  to  prove 
that  the  Messiah  was  to  suffer,  to  die,  to  rise  again; 
that  Jesus  did  all  this;  therefore  Jesus  was  the  Messiah. 
Thus  we  have  (Acts  17  :  2  f.)  only  the  premises  and  the 
conclusions,  not  the  details,  for  which  one  may  turn  to 
the  sermon  at  Aiitioch  in  Pisidia.  Some  impression 
was  made  on  the  Jews  and  a  great  one  on  the  "devout 
Greeks,"  especially  the  women.  One  is  reminded  again 
of  Antioch  in  Pisidia  where  the  women,  were  turned 
against  Paul.  In  Thessalonica,  however,  the  jealous 
Jews  adopt  bolder  methods.  The  rabbis  collect  some 
"vile  fellows  of  the  rabble"  ("toughs"  from  the  out- 
cast sections  of  the  city)  and  engage  them  to  "set  the 
city  in  an  uproar."  They  do  it  to  perfection,  and  drag 
Jason  and  others,  in  lieu  of  Paul  and  Silas,  to  the 
» Findlay,  Art.  Paul  in  Hastings'  "D.  B." 


154  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

"poKtarchs/*  Luke's  strange  term  for  the  rulers  of 
the  city  now  amply  confirmed  by  inscriptions.  Jason 
and  his  party  of  disciples  are  gravely  charged  by  the 
rabbis  and  the  hired  rabble  with  having  turned  the 
city  upside  down,  the  very  thing  which  the  rabble  had 
been  employed  by  the  rabbis  to  do !  One  might  imagine 
himself  back  in  Jerusalem  at  the  trial  of  Christ,  for  the 
charge  is  filed  against  the  disciples  that  they  preach 
Jesus  as  King  "contrary  to  the  decrees  of  Caesar" 
(Acts  17  :  7).  The  Jews  were  not  notorious  for  loyalty 
to  Csesar,  and  these  hired  "hoodlums"  were  not  loyal 
to  anybody.  In  Philippi  money  was  behind  the  cry  of 
patriotism.  In  Thessalonica  the  motive  is  jealousy. 
These  Jewish  leaders  "troubled  the  multitude  and  the 
rulers  of  the  city"  by  their  specious  charges.  But  the 
orthodoxy  that  resorts  to  such  demagoguery  is  rather 
lurid  and  spectacular,  to  say  no  more. 

None  the  less,  Jason  and  the  rest  were  put  on  their 
good  behavior.  They  apparently  felt  that  Paul  had 
better  leave  town.  So  they  "sent  away  Paul  and  Silas " 
probably  against  Paul's  own  desire.  The  riot  had 
been  really  very  dangerous.  Paul  will  later  allude  to 
these  "Jews"  (he  lays  the  blame  on  them,  not  the  poli- 
tarchs)  who  "drove  out  us,"  "forbidding  us  to  speak 
to  the  Gentiles"  (I  Thess.  2  :  15  f.).  But  a  great  work 
has  been  done  in  Thessalonica. 

It  is  possible  that  the  stress  put  by  Paul  here  on  the 
second  coming  of  Christ  may  have  played  into  the 
hands  of  the  Jews  in  stirring  up  the  mob  against  Paul. 


PAUL  ANSWERS  THE  CRY  OF  EUROPE   155 

They  may  have  charged  that  Paul  proclaimed  that 
Jesus  would  soon  come  and  supplant  the  Roman 
Caesar.  He  did,  indeed,  preach  to  them  about  "the 
man  of  sin"  "setting  himself  forth  as  God"  (II  Thess. 
2 : 3  f.).  "When  I  was  yet  with  you  I  told  you  these 
things"  (verse  5).  It  was  not  difficult  for  the  Jews, 
who  did  not  like  the  current  emperor-worship  any  more 
than  Paul,  to  turn  his  strong  words  on  this  subject 
against  him  and  all  the  disciples.  The  excitability 
of  the  mob  at  Thessalonica,  under  the  lead  of  the  Jews, 
throws  a  side-light  also  on  the  volatile  misconcep- 
tions of  the  disciples  there  about  Paul's  real  statements 
as  to  the  second  coming  of  Christ.  He  had  exhorted 
them  to  look  for  that  coming  and  to  be  ready  for  him. 
He  would  come  suddenly  as  a  thief  in  the  night  (I 
Thess.  5:2).  But  some  of  them  had  claimed  that 
Paul  taught  that  Jesus'  coming  was  "just  at  hand" 
(a  point  which  he  later  expressly  denies,  II  Thess.  2:2), 
and  hence  it  was  useless  to  work.  These  pious  en- 
thusiasts Paul  exhorted  while  with  them  to  be  quiet, 
to  attend  to  their  own  business  and  to  work  with 
their  own  hands  (I  Thess.  4:11):  He  has  no  sympathy 
with  the  type  of  piety  that  makes  one  unfit  for  work 
(II  Thess.  3  :  10).  Evidently  Paul  is  not  a  socialist 
in  the  strict  use  of  that  term.  This  is  not  the  last  time 
that  Paul  will  be  misunderstood  while  present  and 
absent. 

But  the  work  at  Thessalonica  was  a  great  achieve- 
ment.   This  strategic  city  with   a    live  church  in  it 


156  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

served  as  a  sounding-board  to  echo  forth  the  gospel 
to  all  the  region  round  both  in  Macedonia  and  Achaia 
(I  Thess.  1 :  7  f.).  Paul  tells  us  much  of  the  consola- 
tion and  joy  that  he  found  in  the  church  at  Thessalon- 
ica  (I  Thess.  1-3)  so  that  one  must  expand  a  good  deal 
the  brief  narrative  of  Luke  in  Acts  17  : 1-10.  The 
pastoral  side  of  Paul's  work  is  prominent  in  the  Epistles 
to  Thessalonica. 

He  carefully  explains  to  them  the  substance  and 
spirit  of  his  message,  as  well  as  the  love  which  he  still 
bore  them,  and  his  exemplary  conduct  while  with  them. 

9.  BercBa:  Search  of  the  Scriptures. — If  Paul  and 
Silas  had  to  flee  from  Thessalonica  by  night  (cf. 
Damascus),  they  had  reward  in  Beroea.  They  begin 
with  the  synagogue  of  the  Jews  who  differ  from  the 
Jews  in  Thessalonica  in  a  readiness  to  investigate  the 
Scriptures  to  see  if  the  new  doctrines  were  true.  That 
shows  an  openness  of  mind  towards  new  truth  that 
entitles  them  to  the  term  "noble"  (Acts  17  :  11). 
Timothy  had  now  rejoined  Paul  and  Silas  (17  :  14). 
The  story  of  Thessalonica  is,  in  a  measure,  repeated 
here,  for  the  Jews  of  Thessalonica  follow  Paul  to 
Beroea  as  those  from  Antioch  inPisidia  went  to  Iconium. 
It  does  not  seem  to  have  been  necessary  to  get  "hood- 
lums" to  raise  a  mob  for  Paul's  benefit  in  Bercea, 
though  that  is  possible,  "stirring  up  and  troubling 
the  multitudes"  (17  :  13).  The  "brethren"  (17  :  14) 
sent  him  on  to  the  sea.  Silas  and  Timothy  remain 
in  Beroea,  while  Paul  goes  on  to  Athens  with  instructions 


PAUL  ANSWERS  THE  CRY  OF  EUROPE   157 

for  them  to  rejoin  him  there  speedily,  apparently  with 
news  from  Thessalonica  and  Bercea.  In  Athens  Paul 
waited  for  them  (17  :  16).  From  I  Thess.  3  : 1  it 
looks  as  if  Timothy,  at  any  rate,  came  on  and  was  sent 
back  again  by  Paul  to  Thessalonica.  If  so,  when  Luke 
in  Acts  18  : 5  speaks  of  Silas  and  Timothy  coming 
down  from  Macedonia  to  Corinth,  he  is  alluding  to 
the  second  coming,  not  to  the  first  at  Athens  (cf.  PauPs 
allusions  to  the  visits  to  Jerusalem  in  Gal.  1  and  2). 

10.  Athens:  Idolatry  and  Philosophy. — One  need 
not  suppose  that  Paul  was  insensible  to  the  glory  and 
greatness  of  Athens.  But  his  mission  to  Europe  was 
that  of  ambassador  for  Christ.  He  was,  indeed,  in 
the  chief  seat  of  ancient  culture  of  all  the  world.  The 
University  of  Athens  had  rivals  now  in  Alexandria, 
Rhodes,  Tarsus  and  elsewhere,  but  none  of  them  had 
the  glory  of  Athens.  The  great  historians,  orators, 
poets,  generals,  statesmen,  philosophers  of  Athens 
were  known  all  over  the  world.  Paul  was  distinctly 
open  to  Hellenic  influence,  Jew  though  he  was.  The 
architecture,  the  sculpture,  the  beauty  of  Athens  had 
been  unrivalled  in  the  crowning  age  of- sculpture  and 
architecture.  The  golden  age  of  Athens  was  far  in 
the  past,  but  the  glory  still  lingered  over  the  Acropolis 
(as  it  does  yet  over  its  ruins).  Paul  had  time  enough 
to  enjoy  them,  if  he  willed. 

But  the  sculpture  faded  before  the  multitude  of 
idols.  The  glorious  Parthenon  was  itself  the  home 
of  the  worship  of  Minerva.    The   learning,  the  phi- 


158  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

losophy  of  the  city  was  under  the  spell  of  idolatry. 
The  city,  this  glorious  city,  was  given  over  to  idols 
(Acts  17  :  16).  That  fact  stared  him  in  the  face.  He 
had  seen  idolatrous  cities  before,  even  of  the  baser  sort 
as  Antioch  in  Syria  and  Paphos  in  Cyprus.  His  very 
spirit  was  provoked  to  see  this  city,  the  home  of  so 
much  that  was  high  and  noble,  given  over  to  false  gods. 
There  were  gods  at  every  turn;  some  thirty  thousand 
in  all  were  worshipped  in  Athens. 

He  must  speak.  In  the  synagogue  he  spoke  to  the 
Jews  on  the  Sabbath.  On  other  days  he  had  a  word 
with  chance  comers  in  the  agora  (17  :  17)  where  teach- 
ers of  every  philosophy  and  religion  dispensed  their  wis- 
dom to  any  who  would  listen.  Paul  was  just  one  more 
in  the  vast  army  of  these  lecturers  who  had  come  to 
the  world's  intellectual  centre.  Ramsay^  conceives 
that  PauFs  debate  with  the  Epicurean  and  Stoic  phi- 
losophers in  reality  took  place  in  the  University  of 
Athens.  That  view  gives  more  dignity  to  the  matter. 
These  two  schools  of  practical  philosophy  were  dom- 
inant in  the  world  of  that  time.  Socrates  turned  the 
trend  of  thought  from  mere  cosmological  speculation 
to  man  himself.  Plato  had  taken  the  cue  from  his 
master  and  Hfted  philosophy  to  a  high  plane  of  abstract 
thought  with  many  noble  ideals.  Aristotle  was  en- 
cyclopaedic and  combined  the  outward  and  the  inward, 
and  systematized  methods  of  thought  and  expression. 
Zeno  and  Epicurus  represented  a  recoil  from  so  much 
»  "St.  Paul  the  Traveller,"  pp.  241  flf. 


PAUL  ANSWERS  THE  CRY  OF  EUROPE   159 

speculation  to  a  practical  view  of  life.  The  one  (the  Stoic) 
aimed  at  conquest  over  evil  by  self-control  that  hardened 
into  pride,  despair  and  pantheism.  The  other  (the  Epi- 
curean) was  atheistic,  light-hearted,  flippant,  selfish,  and 
degenerated  into  mere  love  of  pleasure.  But  they  held 
the  field,  not  only  at  Athens,  but  in  all  the  great  centres 
of  life  (Jerusalem  excepted).  They  were  ready  to  de- 
fend their  views  to  any  new-comer.  Some  of  them 
cannot  conceal  their  fine  scorn  for  Paul  "this  babbler" 
(seed-gatherer  like  a  sparrow  picking  up  crumbs  in 
the  agora,  or  a-irepfioXoyo^),  Others  are  more  polite, 
but  equally  obtuse,  for  they  think  that  Paul  preaches 
two  gods  (one  Jesus,  the  other  the  resurrection).^ 
The  Athenians  made  gods  out  of  the  abstract  virtues. 
Evidently  Paul  was  not  meeting  with  much  success 
with  the  philosophers.  One  recalls  Christ's  diflBculty 
with  the  Jewish  rabbi  Nicodemus. 

They  take  him  to  Mars  Hill!  Why?  Clearly 
not  to  be  tried,  though  one  is  reminded  of  Socrates, 
who  was  charged  with  teaching  strange  doctrines. 
Was  it  merely  idle  curiosity  to  pass  away  the  time? 
They  were,  true  to  their  nature,  always  ready  for  some- 
thing newer  than  the  last  fad  if  for  nothing  serious 
(17 :  21),  a  touch  true  to  life  in  Athens  as  drawn  by 
Plato  himself.  This  motive  was  undoubtedly  present. 
But  was  there  any  more  serious  purpose?    Ramsay^ 

»Cf.   Shakespeare,   "St.   Paul  at  Athens";    D'Ooge,   "The 
Acropolis  of  Athens  "  (1909). 
»  "St.  Paul  the  Traveller,"  p.  247. 


160  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

makes  out  a  pretty  good  case  for  the  idea  that  Paul 
was  really  brought  before  the  Council,  not  for  trial, 
but  to  see  if  he  was  entitled  to  a  lecturer's  certificate 
so  as  to  have  proper  standing  as  a  lecturer  on  religion 
and  philosophy  along  with  the  Stoics  and  Epicureans. 
The  matter  is  not  entirely  clear.  It  is  possible,  though 
slightly  artificial.  But,  in  any  case,  the  tone  of  the 
audience  is  contemptuous,  while  formally  polite 
(17  :  19  f.).  It  is,  however,  an  inspiring  moment 
when  he  stands  on  Mars  Hill,  facing  the  noble  temple 
of  Minerva  on  the  Acropolis,  with  members  of  the 
Council  present  along  with  Epicurean  and  Stoic  philos- 
ophers, to  speak  about  Jesus  of  Nazareth  in  the  midst 
of  Greek  culture.  We  have  seen  Paul  in  various  try- 
ing situations  before.  He  has  not  yet  met  one  that 
called  for  more  resource  and  readiness.  He  will  need 
not  only  his  Jewish  training  and  Christian  experience, 
but  all  his  knowledge  of  Greek  life  and  thought.  He 
has  never  addressed  an  audience  whose  world  outlook 
(Weltanschaung)  was  so  utterly  different  from  his. 
Can  he  so  put  Christianity  as  to  be  loyal  to  Christ 
and  at  the  same  time  win  the  attention  of  this  assembly  ? 
There  is  a  curious  Attic  flavor  to  the  address  of  Paul 
here  which  every  Greek  student  appreciates.  Paul 
seems  to  respond  to  his  atmosphere  in  his  very  language, 
and  Luke  has  the  same  feeling  about  it. 

The  address  is  a  masterpiece  of  real  eloquence  on 
the  greatest  of  themes.  He  skilfully  introduces  the 
subject  of  God  after  passing  a  compliment  on  their 


PAUL  ANSWERS  THE  CRY  OF  EUROPE       161 

religiosity  (verse  22  f.).  He  waves  aside  the  worship 
of  idols  by  an  argument  from  nature  and  represents 
Grod  as  near  those  who  are  groping  in  the  dark  toward 
him  (of.  in  Rom.  1  and  2,  the  other  side,  the  heathen 
going  away  from  God).  He  presents  God,  the  living 
God,  as  the  centre  of  life  and  the  Father  of  all  men, 
as  spirit  and  to  be  worshipped  in  spirit.  This  God  com- 
mands repentance  from  sin  and  will  judge  all  by  the 
man  whom  he  has  sent  and  has  raised  from  the  dead. 
The  sermon  ends  abruptly.  Paul  probably  had  more 
to  say  about  Jesus,  but  he  could  not  go  on.  Some 
laughed  in  his  face,  others  politely  excused  themselves, 
a  few  believed;  Paul  abruptly  went  out  from  among 
them  (17  :  33),  probably  disappointed  at  such  treatment. 
But  he  had  been  faithful  to  Christ  and  the  truth. 
He  had  condemned  idolatry  and  exalted  God.  He 
had  preached  sin,  repentance,  judgment,  Jesus  and 
the  resurrection,  as  much  as  they  would  hear.  He 
had  not  preached  philosophy  instead  of  the  gospel. 
He  had  only  alluded  to  their  philosophy  indirectly  to 
turn  their  thoughts  to  God.  He  had  preached  a  great 
sermon,  but  Httle  was  accomplished  by-  it.  Probably 
he  was  mortified  as  many  a  preacher  has  been  since, 
at  the  result  of  his  efforts.  What  shall  he  do?  If 
Athens  will  not  Ksten  to  him,  will  any  city  in  Greece 
do  so  ?  Will  they  follow  the  example  of  Athens  ?  It 
matters  not.  He  will  stick  to  the  preaching  of  the 
Cross.  He  will  preach  Christ  crucified  whether  the 
philosophers  will  have  it  or  not  (I  Cor.  2:2).    Let  the 


162  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

Cross  be  foolishness  to  the  Greek  as  it  is  a  stumbling- 
block  to  the  Jew  in  every  city.  Paul  knows  that  it  is 
both  the  power  of  God  and  the  wisdom  of  God  (I  Cor. 
1 :  23  f.).  He  will  preach  the  word  of  the  Cross.  The 
day  will  come  when  the  disputer  of  this  world  as  well  as 
the  scribe  will  both  be  made  foolish  before  God  (I  Cor. 
1 :  20).  The  Greek  philosopher  and  Jewish  rabbi 
do  not  use  the  same  weapons  in  debate.  Perhaps 
Paul  was  at  a  loss  to  know  how  to  measure  swords 
with  this  new  variety  of  word-mongers.  He  was  a 
greater  philosopher  than  all  of  them  in  reality,  but  they 
could  not  grasp  the  range  of  his  spiritual  vision.  Paul 
was  not  driven  out  of  Athens.  He  was  laughed  out. 
They  would  not  even  persecute  him.^ 

11.  Corinth:  Sudden  Wealth  and  False  Cidture. — 
Will  Corinth  prove  a  more  promising  field?  It  could 
hardly  be  worse.  Athens  was  old  and  self-confident, 
volatile  and  scornful.  Corinth  had  been  utterly  de- 
stroyed by  Mummius  and  lay  in  ruins  for  a  hundred 
years,  till  Julius  Caesar  restored  it.  Now  it  is  a  great 
and  flourishing  commercial  metropolis,  rich  and  wicked. 
Like  other  "boom"  towns,  Corinth  has  a  veneer  of 
culture  and  an  imitation  of  philosophy.  The  false 
in  taste  was  in  the  ascendant.  There  are  diflficulties 
in  abundance  in  Corinth,  but  they  are  not  exactly 
those  of  Athens  where  the  whole  life  was  dominated 
by  the  critical  and  philosophical  atmosphere  of  the 

*  "Nowhere  else  had  he  so  completely  failed." — Stalker, 
"Lifeof  St.  Paul,"p.  97. 


PAUL  ANSWERS  THE  CRY  OF  EUROPE   163 

University.  Christianity  and  culture  are  not  in  oppo- 
sition. They  are  in  reahty  at  one.  But  an  arrogant 
philosophy  can  be  very  scornful  of  spiritual  matters. 
But  in  a  city  hke  Corinth  the  false  culture  did  not  have 
a  firm  hold  on  all.  There  were  many  who  would  be 
open  to  something  better,  who  even  hungered  for  the 
reahties  of  life. 

The  Jews  are  strong  in  Corinth,  and  Paul  found, 
as  usual,  the  synagogue  at  his  service.  The  presence 
there  of  Aquila,  of  Pontus,  and  Priscilla  his  wife,  was 
due  to  the  expulsion  of  the  Jews  from  Rome  by  the 
Emperor  Claudius  (Acts  18  : 2).  They  are  of  much 
interest  in  themselves,  for  they  will  come  across  Paul's 
path  a  number  of  times  and  always  in  a  helpful  way. 
Whether  they  were  already  Christians  or  became  so  as 
the  result  of  Paul's  labors  we  do  not  know.  What  is 
stated  by  Luke  (18  : 3)  is  that  they,  Hke  Paul,  had  the 
trade  of  tent-making.  That  was  a  common  bond, 
besides  that  of  Christ.  So  they  dwelt  together,  while 
Paul  reasoned  in  the  synagogue  on  the  Sabbath.  Here 
is  a  noble  picture  of  Paul,  who  had  been  begged  to  leave 
Philippi,  driven  out  of  Thessalonica  .and  Beroea, 
laughed  out  of  Athens,  yet  pushing  on  alone  to  Corinth, 
supporting  himself,  making  new  friends,  winning  a 
place  for  Christ  among  Jews  and  Greeks  in  that  great 
city. 

He  had  moments  of  depression,  but  he  held  on.  He 
was  longing  and  looking  for  the  coming  of  Silas  and 
Timothy  from  Thessalonica.    The  arrival  of  Timothy 


164  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

and  Silas  gave  Paul  great  joy  (I  Thess.  3  : 6),  for  now 
he  knew  that  the  church  at  Thessalonica  was  standing 
fast  in  the  Lord.  Now  he  really  lived  (verse  8).  The 
immediate  effect  of  these  new  helpers  was  that  Paul 
devoted  himself  with  fresh  energy  to  the  word  (Acts 
18  : 5).  They  may  have  brought  a  supply  of  provisions 
from  the  church  at  PhiHppi,  as  had  happened  several 
times  while  Paul  was  in  Thessalonica  (Phil.  4 :  16). 
At  any  rate,  Paul  would  need  to  make  fewer  tents 
and  could  preach  more  sermons. 

The  new  power  in  Paul's  preaching  caused  resistance 
among  the  Jews.  The  story  of  Antioch  in  Pisidia, 
Thessalonica,  Beroea  is,  in  a  measure,  repeated,  but 
with  a  difference.  The  modification  is  that  Paul  now 
stands  his  ground.  As  at  Antioch  in  Pisidia,  Paul  turns 
dramatically  from  the  Jews  to  the  Gentiles.  Ramsay* 
admits  that  PauFs  manner  was  not  very  conciliatory 
when  he  was  angry,  and  calls  the  shaking  out  of  the  rai- 
ment a  "very  exasperating  gesture."  In  the  trial  of  Jesus 
the  Jews  took  the  blood  of  Jesus  on  their  heads.  Here 
Paul  says:  "Your  blood  be  upon  your  own  heads" 
(Acts  18  : 6).  He  was  clean.  It  was  probably  ex- 
asperating to  the  Jews  for  Paul  to  hold  his  preaching 
services  in  a  house  "hard  by"  the  synagogue.  The 
sense  of  rivalry  would  thus  be  keen.  Corinth,  like 
Philippi,  was  a  colony,  and  Titus  Justus  has  a  Roman 
name,  though  he  had  probably  been  an  attendant  on 
the  synagogue  worship  (Acts  18  :  7).  The  conversion 
»  "St.  Paul  the  Traveller,"  p.  256. 


PAUL  ANSWERS  THE  CRY  OF  EUROPE   165 

and  baptism  of  Crispus  (ruler  of  the  synagogue)  and 
his  household  would  add  to  the  bitterness.  It  would 
be  like  the  pastor  of  a  church  of  one  denomination 
joining  another  next  door. 

The  vision  of  the  Lord  to  Paul  and  the  message  not 
to  be  afraid  show  that  resentment  was  sharp  (18  :  9  f.). 
Perhaps  but  for  this  message  Paul  might  have  left 
Corinth  as  he  had  done  in  other  cities  and  not  without 
reason.  He  had  been  told  by  Jesus  to  leave  Jerusalem. 
But  now  he  holds  on  till  the  outbreak  comes  and  many 
days  after,  probably  two  years  in  all  (18  :  11,  18). 

The  coming  of  Gallio,  brother  of  Seneca,  to  Achaia 
as  proconsul  (so  after  54  A.D.)  had  an  important  bear- 
ing on  Paul's  career  in  that  there  is  developed  under 
him  "the  imperial  policy  in  its  relation  to  Paul  and 
to  Christian  preaching."  ^  In  Galatia  and  Asia  Minor, 
where  Paul  had  been  the  victim  of  persecution,  his 
case  had  only  come  before  the  city  magistrates  or  a 
mob  had  driven  him  off  as  in  Lystra.  The  various  city 
magistrates  had  all  felt  the  force  of  personal  intrigue 
or  popular  clamor.  Here,  however,  the  proconsul 
himself  is  appealed  to,  who  either  had  a  more  liberal 
and  just  temper  or  took  more  pains  to  separate  the  Jew- 
ish ceremonial  quibbles  from  Roman  provincial  law.^ 
As  a  result  the  Jewish  conspirators  fail  utterly  in  this 
case  against  Paul,  while  Sosthenes,  the  new  ruler  of  the 
synagogue,  himself  gets  the  beating  that  he  had  meant 

»  Ramsay,  "St.  Paul  the  Traveller,"  p.  257. 
2  Ramsay,  "St.  Paul  the  Traveller,"  p.  258. 


166  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

for  Paul,  gets  it  from  the  mob  which  the  Jews  had  so 
successfully  used  against  Paul,  while  Gallio,  like  Nel- 
son, has  a  *' blind  eye"  to  the  work  of  the  mob.  The 
result  of  Gallio's  refusal  to  punish  Paul  was  to  give 
him  and  his  preaching  a  standing  before  Roman  law 
that  it  had  not  had  heretofore,  a  very  important 
matter.  It  was  a  virtual  edict  of  religious  freedom  for 
Christian  preachers  as  a  sect  of  the  Jews  at  any  rate, 
for  Gallio  did  not  go  into  the  differences  between  Paul 
and  the  Jews. 

12.  PauVs  First  Epistles:  I  and  II  Thessalonians. 
— It  was  probably  before  the  latter  part  of  Paul's  stay 
in  Corinth  that  he  wrote  the  Epistles  to  the  Thessa- 
lonians. It  was  soon  after  Timothy  and  Silas  came. 
These  are  the  first  of  PauPs  thirteen  Epistles  preserved 
in  the  New  Testament.  As  already  mentioned,  these 
Epistles  fall  into  four  groups: 

I  and  II  Thessalonians. 

I  and  II  Corinthians,  Galatians,  Romans. 

Philippians,  Philemon,  Colossians,  Ephesians. 

I  Timothy,  Titus,  II  Timothy. 

The  order  here  given  is  not  known  for  certain. 
Some  critics  put  Galatians  as  the  very  first  on  the  list, 
but  on  insufficient  grounds,  in  my  opinion.  Others 
would  place  it  between  the  Thessalonian  Epistles  and 
I  Corinthians.  The  position  of  Philippians  is  not 
clear,  whether  before  or  after  Colossians  and  Ephe- 
sians. But  these  two  matters  of  doubt  do  not  greatly 
affect  the  working  scheme  here  presented. 


PAUL  ANSWERS  THE  CRY  OF  EUROPE       167 

Paul  had  written  other  letters  before  these,  as  might 
be  expected  in  an  age  of  letter-:writing/  In  II  Thess. 
2  : 2  Paul  warns  his  readers  against  forgeries,  and  in 
3 :  17  tells  them  how  to  tell  a  genuine  letter  of  his. 
Evidently  he  had  already  written  more  than  one  when 
men  were  trying  forgeries  of  them.  There  is  a  differ- 
ence between  a  merely  personal  letter  and  a  formal 
and  stately  epistle  that  one  writes  for  public  perusal 
or  for  permanent  preservation.  PauPs  Letters  vary 
from  Philemon,  which  is  almost  wholly  personal,  to 
Ephesians,  which  is  almost  wholly  general.  Those 
addressed  to  churches  necessarily  have  a  more  formal 
character,  but  a  personal  tone  is  found,  or,  at  least, 
personal  items.  The  numerous  papyri  letters  of  the 
early  Christian  era  illustrate  well  Paul's  correspondence 
with  the  churches  and  individuals.  He  seems  to  al- 
lude in  I  Cor.  5  : 9  to  an  epistle  which  is  now  lost.  A 
good  illustration  of  the  doctrinal  epistle  (cf.  Romans) 
is  found  in  Acts  15,  the  epistle  from  the  Jerusalem 
conference  to  the  Church  at  Antioch  and  the  Gentile 
Christians  generally.  It  was  distributed  as  Paul's 
Epistles  came  to  be  (Col.  4  :  15  f.). 

The  Thessalonian  Epistles  were  probably  written 
during  the  period  A.D.  52-3,  and  represent  an  important 
stage  in  Paul's  spiritual  and  doctrinal  development. 
One  can  trace  with  reasonable  correctness  the  funda- 
mental principles  of  his  Christian  theology  prior  to 

*  Cf.  Deissmann,  "Bible  Studies";  Milligan,  "Commentary  on 
Thessalonian  Epistles." 


168  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

this  time  from  the  account  in  Acts.  But  it  is  signifi- 
cant in  the  study  of  any  great  man  when  one  comes 
upon  documents  by  the  man  himself,  especially  if  they 
be  letters  where  a  man  gives  his  real  sentiments  with 
freedom.  The  ecclesiastical  nature  of  these  letters 
does  not  keep  PauFs  own  personality  out  of  them. 
His  very  heart  is  poured  out  in  gratitude  or  concern, 
for  the  disciples  who  were  his  crown  and  joy.* 

The  doctrinal  theses  of  Paul's  later  and  more  ex- 
tensive Epistles  are  here,  the  love  of  God  in  Christ, 
his  death  on  the  Cross  for  sin,  justification  by  faith, 
obedience,  judgment,  the  second  coming  of  Christ. 
But  the  remarkable  element  here  is  that  the  Thessa- 
lonian  Epistles  are  largely  taken  up  with  the  second 
coming,  a  subject  not  mentioned  by  Luke  as  belonging 
to  his  preaching  so  far,  and  which  is  not  treated  at 
much  length  by  Paul  elsewhere  save  in  I  Cor.  7.  One 
is  hardly  prepared  for  its  prominence  just  here  in 
Paul's  teachings.  But  it  is  to  be  remembered  that  it 
was  present  in  the  teaching  of  Jesus  and  in  the  early 
apostolic  preaching.  Local  circumstances  or  PauFs 
own  mood  may  have  brought  the  subject  to  the  front 
at  Thessalonica.  It  was  misunderstood  and  demanded 
further  explanation.  The  explanation  in  the  first 
Epistle  was  still  misunderstood  and  called  for  a  second 
Epistle.  Thus  the  subject  gained  a  rather  larger  pro- 
portion of  attention  in  these  Epistles  than  seemed  to 

*0n  the  pastoral  side  of  Paul's  work,  see  Chadwick,  "The 
Pastoral  Teaching  of  St.  Paul." 


PAUL  ANSWERS  THE  CRY  OF  EUROPE       169 

liave  been  true  of  PauFs  preaching  as  a  whole.  But 
one  cannot  deny  that  Paul,  like  Jesus,  urged  the  dis- 
ciples to  be  in  an  expectant  attitude  and  ready  for  the 
Lord  to  come  at  any  time.  The  collision  at  Thessa- 
(onica  with  the  city  authorities  may  have  led  Paul  to 
feel  strongly  that  the  Roman  Emperor  was  the  man 
of  sin  who  set  himself  up  to  be  worshipped  instead  of 
God.  There  is  no  doubt  at  all  that  Paul  was  right  in 
his  perception  that  this  emperor-worship  was  the  great 
foe  of  Christianity,  the  real  Anti-Christ.  Paul  saw 
it  thus  early  as  John  will  discuss  in  Revelation  this 
titanic  struggle  between  Christianity  and  imperial 
Rome.  The  history  of  Christianity  in  the  first  three 
centuries  amply  vindicated  the  foresight  of  both  Paul 
and  John. 

The  thing  here  to  observe  about  these  Epistles, 
as  about  all  of  Paul's  Letters,  is  that  they  spring  out 
of  actual  historic  circumstances  and  were  written  to 
meet  immediate  and  pressing  needs.  They  possess 
the  element  of  life  and  hence  are  powerful  to-day. 
They  are  not  artificial  or  merely  Kterary  performances. 
Paul  wishes  to  instruct  the  Thessaloriian  Christians, 
to  cheer  them,  to  rebuke  them,  to  lead  them  to  juster 
conceptions  of  the  Christian  Kfe,  to  holier  living. 
Paul's  Letters  are  echoes  of  his  preaching  to  which  he 
alludes  in  these  Epistles.  They  teem  with  suggestions 
that  are  rich  to-day  for  every  soul  that  loves  Christ. 
I  cannot  here  give  a  minute  analysis  or  exposition  of 
Paul's  Epistles.    That  would  be  to  write  a  commentary. 


170  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

One  may  be  referred  to  my  "Student's  Chronological 
New  Testament"^  for  my  analysis  of  Paul's  Epistles 
in  their  historical  setting. 

But  at  Corinth  we  see  Paul  fully  conscious  of  a  great 
message  to  men.  He  speaks  with  the  note  of  authority 
and  power.  This  gospel  (II  Thess.  2 :  14)  which  he 
said  he  had  preached  in  Thessalonica  was,  indeed,  the 
gospel  of  God  (1  Thess.  2  :  2,  8,  9).  He  feels  that  he 
is  preaching  the  word  of  God  both  at  Thessalonica 
(1  Thess.  2 :  13)  and  at  Corinth  (I  Cor.  2  : 4).  He 
feels  emboldened  to  "command"  the  church  at  Thessa- 
lonica (II  Thess.  3  : 4,  6,  12)  as  he  had  done  while  with 
them  (verse  10).  He  even  threatens  those  who  obey 
not  his  Epistles  (II  Thess.  3  :  14).  He  enjoins  that 
they  hold  fast  to  his  instructions  both  by  word  and 
epistle  (II  Thess.  2  :  15).  He  is  now  an  experienced 
preacher  of  Christ  and  the  proven  Apostle  to  the  Gen- 
tiles who  knows  that  the  hand  of  God  is  with  him. 
Along  with  the  clear  doctrinal  grasp  of  Christ's  person, 
mission  and  message  there  breathes  in  these  Epistles 
the  same  deeply  spiritual  note  so  really  Pauline. 
Experience  precedes  theory  with  Paul.^  He  leaves 
Corinth  the  masterful  exponent  of  the  Risen  Christ 
with  a  vision  of  a  world  empire  for  him.  He  now 
knows  that  Christ  can  conquer  Caesar's  realm.  Find- 
lay^  justly  conceives  that  Paul  has  been  making  "an 

^  Fleming  H.  Revell  Co. 

»  Sabatier,  "The  Apostle  Paul,"  p.  114. 

3  Art.  Paul  in  Hastings'  "D.  B." 


PAUL  ANSWERS  THE  CRY  OF  EUROPE   171 

interested  study  of  the  Roman  Empire  and  its  relation 
to  the  Kingdom  of  Christ."  As  he  approached  Rome 
he  felt  its  grandeur  and  was  repelled  by  its  idolatrous 
Caesar-worship. 

13.  The  Return  to  Antioch. — I  pass  by  the  detail 
about  the  cutting  of  the  hair  at  Cenchrese  (Acts  18  :  18) 
in  fulfilment  of  a  vow.  The  Greek  is  ambiguous. 
Whether  it  was  Paul  or  Aquila  cannot  be  determined. 
Paul  was  still  a  Jew  and  had  himself  no  objection  to 
observing  the  Jewish  ceremonial  law  on  the  part  of 
Jews  as  is  made  clear  later  (Acts  21  :  26).  Paul  had, 
on  the  voyage  to  Ephesus,  the  pleasure  of  the  com- 
panionship of  Priscilla  and  Aquila.  The  noble  wife 
of  Aquila  is  often  mentioned  before  him.  They  were 
both  congenial  spirits  to  Paul. 

They  actually  sailed,  of  course,  from  Cenchreae, 
the  harbor  of  Corinth.  Did  Timothy  and  Silas  re- 
main in  Corinth  or  come  on  to  Ephesus?  Did  Tim- 
othy go  back  to  Lystra  and  Silas  to  Jerusalem?  It 
may  seem  remarkable  that,  after  being  forbidden  on 
the  outward  journey  to  come  to  Ephesus  in  the  province 
of  Asia,  Paul  should  now  boldly  proceed  there.  It  is 
plain  that  the  prohibition  was  temporary  and  for  a  special 
purpose.  That  purpose  has  now  been  realized,  the 
proclamation  of  the  Gospel  in  Macedonia  and  Achaia. 
Aquila  and  Priscilla  will  remain  in  Ephesus  till  Paul 
returns  there  and  is  ready  to  leave  (I  Cor.  16  :  19), 
over  three  years  in  all.  Paul  has  a  brief  ministry  with 
the  Jews  in  Ephesus,  but  hurries  away  to  Jerusalem, 


172  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

hoping  to  return  "if  God  will"  (Acts  18  :  19  ff.).  The 
Textus  Receptus  for  verse  21  explains  that  Paul 
was  anxious  to  reach  Jerusalem  for  the  feast  which 
may  have  been  the  passov6r.  If  so,  in  the  spring  of 
A.D.  54  (or  53)  we  may  think  of  PauFs  taking  ship  to 
come  to  Csesarea  on  his  way  to  visit  the  Church  at 
Jerusalem  (Acts  18  :  22). 

It  is  not  absolutely  certain  that  Paul  went  up  to 
Jerusalem,  but  that  is  the  natural  meaning  of  "went 
up"  and  "went  down."  It  had  been  some  four  years 
since  Paul  had  his  battle  for  Gentile  freedom  at  the 
Jerusalem  Conference.  They  had  been  years  of  great 
progress  for  him  and  the  cause  of  Christ  among  the 
Gentiles.  He  has  a  more  wonderful  story  to  tell  than 
ever.  Did  he  see  Peter,  James  and  the  other  "pillars" 
at  Jerusalem?  One  cannot  tell.  The  apparent  brev- 
ity of  his  stay  indicates  that  the  Apostles  were  chiefly 
away.  Did  Paul  meet  the  Judaizers  again?  Prob- 
ably their  leaders  were  in  Galatia  or  on  the  way  to 
Corinth  to  regulate  Paul's  Gentile  converts.  They 
will  soon  begin  to  give  Paul  serious  trouble  all  along 
the  line  of  his  great  tour.  But  he  "saluted  the  church" 
and,  after  an  uneventful  visit,  went  on  his  way  home 
to  Ajitioch.  That  was  his  real  objective  point.  Here 
he  was  sure  of  a  great  welcome.  He  could  now  rest 
awhile  and  take  his  bearings.  What  had  Barnabas 
accomplished  meanwhile?    One  wishes  that  he  knew. 


CHAPTER  IX 

PAUL  THE  TEACHER  OF  THE  CHURCHES 

"Besides  those  things  that  are  without,  there  is  that 
which  presseth  upon  me  daily,  anxiety  for  all  the 
churches"  (2  Cor.  11:28). 

1.  The  Statesmanship  of  Paid. — It  will  come  out 
at  every  turn  in  this  chapter  as  we  see  him  carry  on 
his  heart  the  burden  of  the  churches.  He  has  now 
taken  the  whole  world  into  his  vision,  and,  wherever 
the  body  of  Christ  suffers,  Paul  suffers  (II  Cor.  11  : 
29).  His  horizon  has  broadened  till  it  compasses  the 
whole  Roman  Empire.  At  Ephesus  he  will  fight  the 
opposition  of  Jews  and  the  rage  of  the  silversmiths  who 
are  losing  the  trade  in  their  shrines;  he  will  throw 
his  soul  into  the  solution  of  the  troubles  at  Corinth; 
he  will  superintend  the  collections  for  the  poor  saints 
in  Jerusalem,  a  collection  that  has  included  Galatia, 
Asia,  Achaia  and  Macedonia  in  its  scope  before  he 
leaves  Ephesus  (I  Cor.  16:1  f.;  II  Cor.  9:2;  Acts 
19:22);  he  is  planning  for  a  trip  to  Macedonia, 
Achaia,  Jerusalem,  Rome  (Acts  19 :  22).  At  Troas 
Corinth  will  still  be  a  burden  as  will  be  the  case  in 
Macedonia.  In  Corinth  he  yearns  after  Galatia,  where 
the  Judaizers  have  been  playing  havoc;  after  Jerusalem, 

where   the   opposition   has   crystallized  against  him; 

173 


174  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

after  Rome,  where  he  has  not  yet  been  and  where  the 
Judaizers  have  gone  on  ahead  of  him;  after  Spain 
that  great  Western  empire  ripe  for  the  gospel  of  Christ 
(Rom.  15 :  28).  His  sweep  of  sympathy  is  that  of 
the  Christian  statesman  who  loves  the  whole  worid. 

It  is  just  during  this  period  that  the  difficulties  thicken 
in  his  way.  He  has  now  three  sets  of  enemies  to  fight 
in  detail  or  together,  as  Jesus  had  to  meet  the  com- 
bination of  Pharisee,  Sadducee,  Herodian,  and  finally 
also  the  Roman  Pilate  drawn  in  (cf.  Nero  with  Paul). 
Paul  has  to  meet  the  Jew,  the  Greek  and  the  Judaizer, 
and  finally  the  Roman.  But  during  this  period  (A.D. 
54r-57)  the  Romans  are  not  hostile  to  him,  thanks  to 
GaUio's  decision  in  his  favor.  Nero  has  succeeded 
Claudius,  but  Nero's  golden  quinquennium  was  the 
very  time  when  Paul  is  struggling  with  the  problems 
of  the  mission  churches,  bringing  order  out  of  chaos 
with  some  of  them,  indoctrinating  all  of  them.  He 
has  to  fight  Jew  and  Greek  on  the  ground  at  Ephesus, 
while  the  Judaizer  has  followed  his  trail  (and  that  of 
Apollos  at  Corinth)  and  sowed  discord  with  marvellous 
success.  The  false  brethren  let  their  dogs  loose  on 
Paul's  heels  while  he  drives  back  the  wolves  in  front. 
The  perils  from  his  countrymen,  from  the  Gentiles, 
from  the  false  brethren  (II  Cor.  11  :  26)  were  the  perils 
that  affected  him  more  than  shipwreck,  hunger  and 
cold.  The  hostility  of  the  Jew  gave  him  anguish  of 
heart  (Rom.  9:2).  The  Judaizers  he  spumed  as 
"false  apostles,"  like  Satan,  coming  as  angels  of  light 


PAUL  THE  TEACHER  OF  THE  CHURCHES  175 

•(II  Cor.  11  :  13  f.).  The  Gentiles  rage  at  him  like 
wild  beasts  (I  Cor.  15  :  32).  But  he  loves  both  Jew 
and  Gentile  and  tries  to  be  all  things  to  all  men  to 
save  some  (I  Cor.  9  :  20-22). 

The  grandeur  of  Paul's  nature  comes  out  in  this 
gigantic  struggle  which  he  wages  with  the  forces  of 
evil  thus  massed  against  him.  He  has  friends,  indeed, 
though  some  of  them  are  treacherous.  He  has  joy  in  the 
churches,  though  some  of  them  are  fickle.  The  other 
Apostles  have  followed  the  agreement  made  in  Jerusa- 
lem and  are  endeavoring  to  win  the  Jewish  world  to 
Christ,  though  with  comparatively  poor  success  accord- 
ing to  Rom.  9-11.  Tradition  reports  them  in  various 
parts  of  Egypt,  Arabia,  Mesopotamia,  India,  and  Peter 
writes  to  the  various  provinces  of  Asia  Minor  (I  Peter 
1  : 1  f.).  But  Paul  is  not  entirely  alone,  though  no 
other  figure  of  like  stature  stands  by  his  side  as  he 
directs  the  great  campaign  in  the  Roman  Empire. 
He  has  faithful  lieutenants  who  are  loyal  to  him,  men 
like  Timothy,  Titus,  Erastus,  Aquila  (with  Priscilla), 
Sosthenes,  Apollos,  Tyrannus,  Sopater,  Aristarchus, 
Secundus,  Gains,  Tychicus,  Trophimus,  Luke,  the 
household  of  Chloe,  Phoebe  and  the  noble  array  of 
coworkers  whose  names  occur  in  Rom.  16.  There 
were  others  also  (see  I  Cor.  16),  but  these  are  enough 
to  show  the  strong  personal  ties  that  Paul  had  made 
all  over  the  world.  These  helpers  were  his  stay  and 
support  as  he  strengthened  the  work  at  Ephesus, 
managed  the  great  collection,  wrote  his  Epistles,  sent 


176  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

committees  or  embassies,  sought  to  strengthen  the 
cause  and  extend  the  sphere  of  the  Gospel  everywhere. 
"He  was,  indeed,  born  for  conflict,"  and  "without 
these  great  troubles  we  should  never  have  known  Paul 
at  his  greatest,  nor  guessed  how  tender  his  heart  was, 
how  heroic  his  faith,  how  vigorous  his  mind,  how  in- 
finite the  resources  of  his  strong  and  supple  genius."  * 
Paul  appears  in  his  true  glory  now,  but  he  himself 
sees  only  the  face  of  Jesus.  "For  the  love  of  Christ 
constraineth  us"  (II  Cor.  5  :  14).  He  glories  in  his 
weaknesses  that  the  power  of  Christ  may  rest  upon  him. 
"When  I  am  weak,  then  am  I  strong"  (II  Cor.  12  :  10). 
The  passionate  love  for  Christ  and  for  lost  souls  has 
him  fast.  He  is  willing  to  be  thought  beside  himself 
(II  Cor.  5  :  13)  if  so  be  he  succeeds  in  his  ambition  to 
please  Jesus. 

Findlay^  has  a  remarkably  vigorous  paragraph 
about  "the  period  of  his  struggle  with  the  Judaistic 
reaction  in  the  Church,  and  of  the  four  great  evangelical 
Epistles  which  were  its  outcome.  The  evangelist 
becomes  the  controversialist;  the  church  founder  must 
defend  the  churches  of  his  foundation.  The  apologetic 
and  doctrinal  interests  now  predominate  in  St.  Paul's 
work;  he  is  employed  in  consolidating  the  conquests 
already  won."  The  Judaizers  have  made  an  im- 
pression outside  of  Jerusalem.  They  have  led  many 
of  the  Gentiles  to  believe  that  Paul  was  unsound,  that 

»Sabatier,  "The  Apostle  Paul,"  p.  136. 
»  Art.  Paul  in  Hastings'  "D.  B." 


PAUL  THE  TEACHER  OF  THE  CHURCHES  177 

the  Judaizers  alone  were  the  exponents  of  true  Chris- 
tianity, that  they  have  the  sanction  of  the  real  Apostles. 
In  a  word,  they  are  Judaizing  the  Gentile  Christians. 
The  Jerusalem  agreement  has  been  set  aside.  Paul 
confronts  the  whole  array  of  them  with  a  lion's  cour- 
age and  vanquishes  them  in  the  greatest  struggle  of 
his  career.  His  great  Epistles  "are  the  crushing  and 
terrible  blows  with  which  the  mighty  combatant 
openly  answered  the  court  intrigues  of  his  enemies. 
The  contest  is  in  reality  a  drama,  which  grows  larger 
and  more  complicated  as  it  advances  from  Galatia  to 
Rome.*'^ 

2.  Paul  Leaves  Antioch  Again  and  for  the  Last  Time. 
— Like  a  whaler  he  yearns  to  set  forth  once  more.  He 
is  too  far  from  the  centre  of  his  great  mission  conquests. 
He  must  be  in  the  thick  of  the  fight.  Antioch  is  now 
a  seasoned  church  and  does  not  need  him  so  much. 
His  objective  point  is  Ephesus,  to  which  place  he  had 
promised  to  return.  He  proceeds  "through  the  region 
of  Galatia  and  Phrygia"  (Acts  18:23).  Ramsay^ 
here  understands  Luke  to  describe  two  regions,  the 
Galatic  and  the  Phrygian.  Thus  Paul  went  through 
the  province  of  Galatia  and  that  portion  of  Phrygia 
west  of  Galatia  (really  in  Asia).  This  interpretation 
leaves  undetermined  what  portion  of  the  province  he 
traversed,  though  Luke's  phrase  in  Acts  18 :  23  natu- 


>Sabatier,  "The  Apostle  Paul,"  p.  136.    Cf.  Lock,  "St.  Paul 
the  Master  Builder,"  pp.  38-67. 
»  "St.  Paul  the  TraveUer,"  p.  211. 


178  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

rally  implies  that  he  revisited  the  churches  of  Lycaonia 
and  Phrygia,  at  any  rate,  "in  order."  This  would  in- 
clude Galatia  proper  if  he  had  gone  there  on  his  previous 
visit.  This  is  the  third  time  that  Paul  has  come  to  the 
province  of  Galatia  and  the  second  time  to  Galatia 
proper,  if  we  follow  the  North  or  North-western  Galatian 
theory.  It  was  during  this  visit  that  Paul  probably 
arranged  the  collection  in  Galatia  for  the  poor  saints 
at  Jerusalem  (I  Cor.  16  : 1).  The  Judaizers  followed 
him  and  got  in  their  mischievous  work  in  Galatia 
after  Paul  had  left  it. 

3.  Three  Years  in  Ephesus. — It  was  most  likely  in 
the  early  summer  of  54  (or  53)  that  Paul  reached 
Ephesus.  He  was  probably  here  less  than  three  full 
years  (cf.  Acts  19:8,  10,  21  f.;  20:31).  It  was  in 
the  spring  of  A.D.  57  (or  56)  that  he  left  Ephesus 
(I  Cor.  16  : 8).  In  this  great  metropolis  of  the  province 
of  Asia  and  of  the  whole  of  Asia  Minor,  Paul  plants 
himself.  The  city  was  a  strategic  one  from  every  point 
of  view.  The  gospel  is  already  well  established  in 
Central  Asia  Minor.  He  passed  "through  the  upper 
country"  on  his  way  to  Ephesus  (Acts  19  : 1),  an  ex- 
pression in  harmony  with  the  North  Galatian  con- 
struction. The  silversmiths  will  charge  that  "not 
alone  at  Ephesus,  but  almost  throughout  all  Asia, 
this  Paul  hath  persuaded  and  turned  away  much 
people"  (Acts  19:26),  a  testimony  to  the  power  of 
his  ministry  in  Ephesus.  Luke  himself  remarks  that 
as  a  result  of  Paul's  labors  here  "all  they  that  dwelt 


PAUL  THE  TEACHER  OF  THE  CHURCHES  179 

in  Asia  heard  the  word  of  the  Lord,  both  Jews  and 
Greeks"  (Acts  19  :  10).  Paul  will  later  write  to 
Colossse  and  Laodicea  (Col.  4  :  16),  cities  in  the  Lycus 
valley,  a  portion  of  the  province  which  he  had  not 
visited  (Col.  1  : 9).  Later,  Timothy  will  be  located 
here  to  superintend  the  mission  work  in  this  vast  region 
(I  Tim.  1  : 3).  John  the  Apostle  seems  to  have  spent 
the  closing  years  of  his  ministry  in  Ephesus  and 
neighborhood.  The  Book  of  the  Revelation  of  John 
is  addressed  to  a  circle  of  seven  churches  in  this  province 
of  Asia  (Rev.  1  :  11),  a  list  which  by  no  means  includes 
all  in  the  province.  It  is  clear,  therefore,  that  Paul 
made  no  mistake  in  choosing  it  for  his  present  head- 
quarters. 

We  not  only  have  Luke's  historical  account  in  the 
Acts  of  the  Ephesian  ministry,  but  a  report  of  Paul's 
own  summary  of  his  labors  there  given  in  an  address 
to  the  Ephesian  elders  at  Miletus  on  his  way  to 
Jerusalem  (Acts  20  :  17-35).  The  so-called  Epistle  to 
the  Ephesians  was  probably  a  general  letter  for  other 
churches  (Col.  4  :  16)  also  and  is  devoid  of  personal 
details.  But  the  address  at  Miletus  throws  a  clear  light 
back  upon  Paul's  work  in  the  city  of  the  goddess  Diana. 
He  sketches  with  tenderness  and  pathos  the  elders' 
knowledge  of  his  life  in  Ephesus,  his  loneliness  of  mind, 
his  tears,  the  plots  of  the  Jews  against  him.  He  is 
glad  to  recall  his  courage  in  public  and  private  teaching. 
He  had  faithfully  told  them  the  whole  counsel  of  God. 
He  had  done  his  duty  by  them.    He  had  preserved 


180  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

his  manhood  by  self-support  for  his  own  necessities 
and  for  the  help  of  those  with  him.  He  had  not  been 
a  covetous  preacher.  He  had  been  an  example  to 
them  of  helping  the  weak.  He  had  remembered  and 
practised  the  word  of  the  Lord  Jesus  about  the  joy 
of  giving.  This  is  a  farewell  sermon  a  year  after  he 
had  left  the  Church,  an  address  to  other  preachers.  It 
is  wonderfully  pertinent  to-day.  It  will  help  us  get 
PauFs  own  point  of  view  about  his  work  in  Ephesus. 

Paul  just  misses  Apollos  when  he  reaches  Ephesus. 
This  brilliant  young  Alexandrian  disciple  of  John  the 
Baptist  had  become  an  accurate  and  powerful  ex- 
pounder of  Christianity  before  he  reached  Ephesus 
(Acts  18  :  25),  but  he  was  ready  to  learn  more  accurately 
at  the  hands  of  Priscilla  and  Aquila.  He  was  teach- 
able as  well  as  mighty  in  the  Scriptures,  and  eloquent. 
It  was  doubtless  a  pleasure  to  Aquila  and  Priscilla 
to  write  to  the  Corinthians  a  note  of  introduction 
(Acts  18 :  27;  cf.  II  Cor.  3:1).  As  an  Alexandrian 
Jew  he  powerfully  confuted  the  Jews  in  Corinth,  per- 
haps with  more  success  than  Paul  had  (Acts  18 :  28). 
He  was  a  noteworthy  successor  to  Paul  and  "helped 
them  much."  Paul  will  meet  Apollos  when  he  returns 
to  Ephesus.  Aquila  and  Priscilla  meanwhile  give  Paul 
a  joyful  welcome. 

The  case  of  the  twelve  misinformed  disciples  of 
John  the  Baptist  whom  Paul  met  on  his  arrival  illus- 
trates well  the  complicated  development  that  went  on 
after  the  death  of  John  and   Jesus.    The  most  of 


PAUL  THE  TEACHER  OF  THE  CHURCHES  181 

John's  disciples  who  survived  were  probably  merged 
into  the  Christian  body,  but  some  held  aloof,  as  we 
know  was  true,  for  a  good  while  after  this  period.  Some 
of  these  may  have  regarded  Christianity  as  a  rival, 
while  others  were  merely  in  ignorance  of  the  relation 
of  the  Baptist's  work  to  that  of  Jesus.  The  present 
group  were  evidently  friendly  towards  Christianity, 
but  ignorant  of  the  basal  elements  of  John's  own 
preaching.  They  had  not  heard  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  of 
Jesus,  of  repentance.  John  taught  all  these  subjects. 
They  had  not  really  received  the  baptism  of  John 
except  in  name,  a  very  different  example  from  that  of 
ApoUos.  Paul  baptized  them,  therefore,  in  the  name 
of  Jesus  (Acts  19 : 5),  showing  that  the  full  name  of 
the  Trinity  was  not  always  used.  The  essential  name 
for  Christian  baptism  was  that  of  Jesus.  But  note 
Paul's  question  in  verse  3.  Then  followed  the  laying 
on  of  hands,  speaking  with  tongues,  and  prophecy, 
common  experiences  of  the  early  Christians. 

When  Paul  had  stopped  at  Ephesus,  on  his  way  to 
Jerusalem,  he  had  been  received  kindly  by  the  Jews 
and  even  invited  by  them  to  stay  longer.'  So  he  renews 
his  work  with  them,  showing  that  Aquila  and  Priscilla 
had  kept  on  good  terms  with  the  Jews  of  Ephesus. 
He  now  spends  three  months  teaching  the  Kingdom 
of  God  in  the  synagogue.  But  the  inevitable  breach 
came  when  Paul  began  to  get  solid  results  from  his 
work.  When  they  spoke  evil  of  "the  Way,"  he  took 
the  disciples  away  from  the  synagogue,  but  without 


182  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

any  special  dramatic  act  as  at  Corinth  or  at  Antioch 
in  Pisidia.  They  went  to  the  school  of  Tyrannus. 
One  of  the  school-teachers  (a  Greek)  had  become  a 
disciple.  Paul  was  not  over-particular  as  to  the  place 
where  he  should  preach.  He  would  take  the  Jewish 
synagogue,  a  place  of  prayer  by  the  river-side,  a  jail, 
Mars  Hill,  the  home  of  a  disciple  (Titus  Justus),  a 
school-house,  anywhere.  But  now  a  cleavage  has  come 
and  Paul  addresses  himself  more  directly  to  the  popu- 
lace. After  school-hours  were  over  (about  the  fifth 
hour*)  we  are  to  think  of  Paul's  addressing  the  people 
in  the  school-room  of  Professor  Tyrannus  ("King"). 
This  went  on  for  two  years  till  the  riot  broke  it  up. 

It  is  a  remarkable  incident  Luke  records  in  Acts 
19:11-20.  He  calls  the  miracles  "special,"  quite 
aware  of  the  unusual  character  of  such  cures  from  the 
use  of  handkerchiefs  or  aprons.  One  is  reminded  of 
the  cases  in  connection  with  Peter's  shadow  and  the 
hem  of  Christ's  garments.  It  is  evident  that  the  his- 
torical evidence  for  such  instances  is  hardly  on  a  par 
with  that  for  the  more  usual  miracles.  And  yet  one 
must  not  fall  into  the  error  of  thinking  that  no  diflS- 
culties  exist  about  the  narratives  of  the  more  common 
miracles.  If  the  event  is  really  supernatural,  the 
humble  channel  of  an  apron  need  not  of  itself  debar 
belief.  Ramsay^  cites  the  sudden  change  from  "seven" 
sons  to  "both"  as  discrediting  the  story.     But  Moul- 

» Ramsay,  "St.  Paul  the  Traveller,"  p.  271. 
>  "St.  Paul  the  Traveller,"  p.  272. 


PAUL  THE  TEACHER  OF  THE  CHURCHES  183 

ton*  has  produced  papyri  examples  of  the  use  of 
afi^orepoL  (both)  in  the  sense  of  irdvre^  (all).  One  is 
not  yet  able  to  throw  any  light  on  Sceva  as  a  "chief 
priest."  The  failure  of  these  strolling  Jewish  exorcists 
greatly  increased  the  influence  of  Paul  for  Christ. 
The  burning  of  the  magical  books  set  a  good  example 
for  all  time.  The  price  was  high,  but  not  too  high,  if 
it  meant  dehverance  from  the  spell  of  bad  books. 
Many  a  city  and  home  needs  a  book-burning.  Be- 
sides in  this  instance  it  was  a  voluntary  book-burning, 
not  oppression. 

Paul  is  drawing  his  work  in  Asia  to  a  close  and  his 
thoughts  are  reaching  out  to  the  other  cities  in  the 
empire.  His  original  plan  had  been  to  go  direct  from 
Ephesus  to  Corinth,  thence  to  Macedonia,  returning 
again  by  Corinth  on  his  way  to  Judea  (II  Cor.  1  :  16). 
But  this  plan  was  abandoned  when  he  wrote  the  first 
Epistle  to  Corinth,  for  he  there  (I  Cor.  16 : 5  f.)  ex- 
presses an  unwillingness  to  come  "by  the  way."  He 
wishes,  if  possible,  to  spend  the  next  winter  with  them 
(it  is  now  spring,  I  Cor.  16 : 8).  He  hopes  that  they 
will  speed  him  on  his  journey  after  that  "whitherso- 
ever I  go."  This  programme  agrees  exactly  with  the 
one  outlined  in  Acts  19 :  21  as  actually  carried  out. 
Why  Paul  had  sent  Timothy  to  Corinth  (I  Cor.  4:17) 
and  then  the  Epistle  instead  of  going  himself,  thus  giving 
color  to  the  charge  of  fickleness  (I  Cor.  4  :  18  f . ;  II  Cor. 

*  "Prolegomena,"  p.  80.  Cf.  Robertson,  "Short  Grammar  of 
the  Greek  New  Testament,"  p.  23. 


184  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

1  :  17  ff.),  is  a  matter  that  belongs  to  the  discussion  of 
the  troubles  at  Corinth  which  will  be  taken  up  directly. 
It  is  clear  from  Acts  19  :  22  that  Timothy  had  come 
back  from  Corinth  before  Paul  left  Ephesus  since  he 
had  sent  him  and  Erastus  on  to  Macedonia  ahead  of 
him,  unless,  indeed,  he  went  to  Corinth  that  way  and 
returned  (II  Cor.  1:1),  which  is  not  likely.  He  is 
later  in  Macedonia  with  Paul.  Paul's  plans  at  Ephe- 
sus include  Macedonia,  Achaia,  Jerusalem,  Rome  (Acts 
19 :  21),  and  soon  Spain  comes  into  that  programme 
(Rom.  15  :  24-28). 

He  was,  indeed,  hurried  away  from  Ephesus  rather 
sooner  than  he  had  expected.  It  is  possible,  though 
not  certain,  that  I  Corinthians  was  written  from  Ephe- 
sus about  the  passover  time  (I  Cor.  5:7).  He  did  not 
remain  till  Pentecost  (I  Cor.  16  : 8)  in  spite  of  "  a  great 
door  and  effectual "  which  was  opened  unto  him.  The 
"many  adversaries"  at  last  proved  too  much  for  him. 
It  had  already  come  to  be  Hke  fighting  wild  beasts  to 
go  on  at  Ephesus  (I  Cor.  15 :  32).  He  was  in  daily 
peril  of  his  Kfe.  He  had  held  his  ground  at  Ephesus 
longer  even  than  at  Corinth.  But  finally  a  condition 
arose  that  drove  him  away,  a  consolation  perhaps  to 
many  a  pastor  who  has  had  to  leave  the  scene  of  former 
triumphs  for  Christ.  The  story  does  not  differ  greatly 
in  principle  from  the  greed  of  the  masters  of  the  poor 
girl  in  PhiKppi  and  the  jealousy  of  the  rabbis  in  Thes- 
salonica.  Demetrius  carried  on  a  "god-factory"  in 
Ephesus.     He  claimed  to  manufacture  the  best  type 


PAUL  THE  TEACHER  OF  THE  CHURCHES  185 

of  silver  shrines  of  Diana  on  the  market.  The  preach- 
ing of  Paul  had  not  only  had  a  bad  effect  on  evil  books. 
It  had  run  down  the  demand  for  the  wares  of  the  house 
of  Demetrius.  His  craft  and  Paul  were  in  direct  oppo- 
sition. Paul  had  touched  the  rights  of  invested  capital. 
Luke  has  drawn  the  picture  with  a  master's  hand. 
Demetrius  gathered  together  all  the  craftsmen  of  the 
company  and  laid  before  them  the  danger  to  their 
pockets  and  their  piety,  and  in  this  order  (Acts  19  :  27). 
Their  shout  took  up  the  appeal  to  the  dignity  of  Diana 
as  a  matter  of  course.  The  rest  took  care  of  itself. 
As  in  Thessalonica,  so  here  they  fail  to  get  hold  of 
Paul  himself,  but  do  seize  two  Macedonian  friends  of 
Paul,  Aristarchus  and  Gains.  The  scene  in  the  vast 
theatre  is  that  of  the  typical  mob.  Paul  was  bent  on 
facing  these  "wild  beasts,"  but  he  was  restrained  by 
the  disciples  and  the  Asiarchs.  It  is  interesting  to  note 
the  friendly  attitude  of  these  Asiarchs  toward  Paul. 
Ramsay*  calls  these  "High  Priests  of  Asia"  heads  of 
the  worship  of  Rome  and  the  emperors  in  the  province. 
He  argues  therefrom  that  imperial  policy  was  not  yet 
hostile  to  Christianity  and  that  the  educated  Greeks 
in  Ephesus  did  not  share  the  superstitious  hatred  of 
the  vulgar  toward  Paul.  A  mob  is  not  very  discrim- 
inating. They  had  started  out  against  Paul  as  a 
Christian,  but  he  was  also  a  Jew.  Now  Jews  hated 
idols  as  did  Paul,  and  somehow  their  rage  got  started 
toward  the  Jews.  These  put  forward  Alexander,  one 
»  "St.  Paul  the  Traveller,"  p.  281. 


186  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

of  their  number,  to  explain  the  difference  between  the 
Christians  and  the  Jews.  But  the  fact  that  Alexander 
showed  his  Jewish  face  was  enough  for  the  mob. 
They  had  been  all  confusion  till  now  they  became 
unanimous  in  their  shout  for  Diana  against  the  Jews. 
After  two  hours  the  town  clerk  quieted  the  crowd  and 
demanded  that  Demetrius  take  his  complaint  against 
Paul  to  the  courts  of  the  proconsul.  There  is  also  the 
regular  assembly.  He  rightly  called  the  mob  a  riot. 
His  speech  shows  the  true  insight  into  the  whole  busi- 
ness and  that  it  was  mock-patriotism  or  mock-piety 
that  started  it,  piety  for  revenue,  in  truth.  It  is  plain 
from  Acts  20  : 1  that  Paul  did  not  tarry  long  in  Ephesus 
now.     It  was  useless. 

4.  The  Trouble  at  Corinth:  1  Corinthians. — It  has 
seemed  best  to  present  the  work  at  Ephesus  as  a  whole. 
We  must  now,  however,  bring  up  that  side  of  his  life 
at  Ephesus  which  concerned  Corinth  and  then  discuss 
briefly  the  first  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians.  So  far  as 
one  can  tell,  the  troubles  broke  out  at  Corinth  after 
Apollos  came.  An  ApoUos  party,  a  Paul  party,  a 
Cephas  party  and  a  Christ  party  soon  resulted  (I 
Cor.  1  :  12  ff.).  It  is  not  at  all  probable  that  this 
divisive  spirit  grew  merely  out  of  Hkes  and  disUkes  of 
various  disciples  in  Corinth  for  Apollos  or  Paul.  That 
element  was  present  beyond  a  doubt  (I  Cor.  3:4  f.). 
The  two  men  differed  greatly  in  style  and  training. 
Paul  had  more  weight  and  intellectual  grasp,  Apollos 
more    oratorical    display    in    his    speech.    The    two 


PAUL  THE  TEACHER  OF  THE  CHURCHES  187 

types  of  preachers  always  exist  and  have  their  following. 
But  Apollos  would  not  be  a  party  to  such  rivalry,  and 
so  he  left.  He  came  back  to  Ephesus.  Paul  besought 
him  much  to  return  to  Corinth,  but  he  stoutly  refused 
(I  Cor.  16 :  12).  One  can  but  respect  the  feelings  and 
conduct  of  Apollos  in  the  matter. 

But  this  was  not  all.  There  is  no  evidence  that  Peter 
had  ever  been  in  Corinth,  though  that  is  barely  possible. 
The  partisan  use  of  Peter's  name  by  the  Judaizers, 
who  did  come  to  Corinth,  does  not  prove  that  Peter 
had  come.  His  conduct  at  Antioch  had  given  them  all 
the  handle  that  they  needed  to  pit  Peter  against  Paul. 
They  were  quick  to  take  advantage  of  the  split  over 
Apollos  and  Paul  to  drive  another  wedge  into  this 
Pauline  Church.  The  name  of  Cephas  (I  Cor.  3  :  22) 
was  used  as  the  chief  Apostle.  Indeed,  it  was  alleged 
by  the  Judaizers  that  all  the  real  Apostles  opposed 
Paul's  Gentile  programme.  The  Pharisaic  party 
among  the  Jewish  Christians  in  Corinth  would  re- 
spond to  this  so  that  Paul  will  have  to  insist  to  the 
church  at  Corinth,  where  of  all  places  in  the  world  it 
ought  to  have  been  unnecessary  to  do  so,  that  he  was 
"in  nothing  behind  the  very  chiefest  Apostles"  (II 
Cor.  12  :  11).  The  Judaizers  gained  a  strong  follow- 
ing here.  It  is  probably  this  Judaizing  party  that 
will  stand  out  against  Paul  the  longest  (cf.  II  Cor. 
10-13)  after  the  Apollos  and  the  Christ  party  have  sur- 
rendered. When  Paul  writes  II  Corinthians  there  are 
probably  only  two  parties,  the  Pauline  and  the  Judaiz- 


188  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

ing/  The  first  Epistle  won  over  to  Paul  the  Apollos 
and  the  Christ  party. 

The  Christ  party  is  rather  nebulous  after  all.  Paul 
drops  the  term  in  I  Cor.  3  :  22.  Perhaps  it  was  a  party 
of  reaction  against  the  other  three.  Away  with  Apollos, 
Paul,  Peter,  they  urged.  Let  us  use  only  the  name  of 
Christ.  It  was  more  a  contention  for  the  name  than 
a  protest  against  Paul's  teachings  and  easily  melted 
back  into  the  Pauline  position. 

But  before  Paul  wrote  the  Epistle  that  we  term 
I  Corinthians  he  had  probably  written  another  letter 
about  the  dreadful  peril  of  immorality  in  that  worst  of 
Greek  cities  (I  Cor.  5  :9,  11).  Some  of  the  disciples 
had  been  swept  back  into  the  vortex.  The  household 
of  Chloe  (I  Cor.  1  :  11)  had  come  to  Ephesus  and  told 
Paul  of  the  dissensions  in  the  Corinthian  Church.  He 
had  himself  thought  of  going  (1  Cor.  4  :  18-21),  but 
instead  had  sent  Timothy  (4  :  17),  whom  he  warmly 
commends  to  them  (16  :  10).  He  will  surely  come  soon, 
but  does  not  wish  to  come  with  the  rod  (4  :  21).  It  is 
held  by  some  scholars  that  Paul  did  himself  make  a 
hurried  visit  to  Corinth  and  came  back  to  Ephesus. 
This  is,  indeed,  a  possible  interpretation  of  "the  third 
time"  in  II  Cor.  12  :  14;  13  : 1.  But  the  language 
may  as  well  refer  to  his  plans  to  come  three  times, 
though  as  yet  he  has  only  gone  once.  In  either  view 
he  has  not  yet  gone  the  third  time.  Observe  also  "a 
second  benefit"  in  II  Cor.  1  :  15.  He  put  off  his  pro- 
»  Sabatier,  "The  Apostle  Paul,"  p.  159. 


PAUL  THE  TEACHER  OF  THE  CHURCHES  189 

posed  visit  out  of  consideration  for  them  (II  Cor.  1 :  23). 
He  wished  to  spare  them.  It  is  argued,  on  the  other 
hand,  that  "come  again  with  sorrow"  (II  Cor.  2:1; 
cf.  12  :  21)  means  that  he  had  already  had  one  sorrow- 
ful visit,  but  that  is  not  a  necessary  interpretation.  It 
may  mean  a  second  which  would  be  a  sorrowful  visit. 

In  the  meantime  the  Church  had  sent  a  formal 
deputation  to  Paul  at  Ephesus  (Stephanas,  Fortunatus, 
Achaicus,  I  Cor.  16  :  17).  They  had  refreshed  Paul's 
spirit.  A  letter  from  the  church  had  also  come  which 
made  specific  request  that  Paul  help  them  with  other 
problems  also,  such  as  marriage  (I  Cor.  7:1),  meats 
offered  to  idols  (8  : 1),  spiritual  gifts  (12  : 1),  and 
probably  the  doctrine  of  the  resurrection  (15  : 1). 
This  demand  offered  him  the  occasion  to  group  to- 
gether a  discussion  of  the  main  problems  in  the  church 
at  Corinth. 

The  Epistle  called  I  Corinthians  is  that  discussion. 
It  was  written  probably  in  the  spring  of  57  (or  56), 
though  Ramsay  ^  thinks  that  it  dates  in  the  autumn  of 
55.  This  great  document  is  all  ablaze  with  passion 
and  power.  It  is  vital  with  the  real' difficulties  that 
confronted  the  church  in  Corinth.  Apparently  it 
is  a  pamphlet  to  meet  an  emergency  rather  than  a 
formal  theological  treatise.  But  it  is  just  here  that 
its  tremendous  value  for  modem  fife  lies.  Paul  had 
to  meet  the  live  issues  of  a  mission  church  in  a  great 
and  wicked  city.  These  issues  vary  greatly  in  value. 
*  "St.  Paul  the  Traveller,"  p.  275. 


190  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

They  range  from  petty  prejudices  about  preachers  to 
the  great  doctrine  of  the  resurrection,  from  serious 
moral  lapses  to  the  eating  of  meats  offered  to  idols, 
from  the  problem  of  marriage  to  the  collection  for  the 
poor,  from  going  to  law  before  the  heathen  to  misuse 
of  the  spiritual  gifts.  There  is  no  one  central  doctrine 
advanced  in  the  Epistle.  The  various  topics  are  treated 
in  successive  groups:  the  di\isions  in  1-4,  the  moral 
questions  in  5  and  6,  marriage  in  7,  meats  offered  to 
idols  in  8-10,  abuses  in  church  worship  11-14,  the 
doctrine  of  the  resurrection  in  15,  the  collection  and 
sundry  personal  items  in  16.  There  is  a  kind  of  unity 
and  progress  in  the  whole.  Each  part  is  treated  with 
force  and  enthusiasm.  But  the  remarkable  thing 
about  it  all  is  that  in  the  treatment  of  casuistical  ques- 
tions Paul  does  not  use  mere  dialectical  skill.  He 
seeks  the  Christian  principle  that  will  guide  one  aright.* 
In  doing  this  he  marked  the  way  for  Christians  in  all 
similar  matters.  Some,  indeed  most,  of  these  problems 
in  casuistry  have  long  since  passed  away,  but  others 
have  arisen  like  them.  Hence  I  Corinthians  is  the 
most  modern  of  all  Paul's  writings.  Some  of  the  same 
problems  survive  with  us  in  a  somewhat  altered  form. 
But  in  any  case  Paul's  Christian  insight  helps  every 
honest-hearted  man  to-day  who  longs  to  walk  in  the 
footsteps  of  Jesus. 

But  let  no  one  think  that  a  controversial  document 
written  in  the  heat  of  passion  has  no  literary  quality. 
'  Sabatier,  "The  Apostle  Paul,"  p.  161. 


PAUL  THE  TEACHER  OF  THE  CHURCHES  191 

The  noblest  passage  in  literature  on  love  is  I  Cor.  13. 
The  classic  on  the  doctrine  of  the  resurrection  is  I  Cor. 
15.  These  are  enough  to  distinguish  any  work  and 
testify  to  the  genius  of  Paul.  But  his  whole  tone, 
besides  specific  remarks,  shows  that  he  is  conscious 
of  divine  guidance  in  the  message  which  he  sends. 
He  ploughs  his  way  through  the  maze  of  theological 
quibbles  and  the  bog  of  immorahty  to  the  clear  light 
of  truth  in  Christ. 

The  emphasis  laid  on  the  collection  for  the  poor 
at  Jerusalem  is  noteworthy,  for  Paul  is  pushing  this 
offering  from  Gentiles  to  Jews  on  a  large  scale  at  the 
very  time  that  the  Judaizers  are  seeking  to  make 
Paul  out  an  enemy  of  Moses  and  an  apostarte  Jew. 
All  the  varied  gifts  of  the  great  missionary  statesman 
come  into  play.  The  very  existence  of  spiritual 
Christianity  is  at  stake.  The  battle  between  Paul 
and  the  ceremonialists  is  now  world-wide.  Paul  is 
almost  omnipresent.  He  deals  them  a  heavy  blow  in 
I  Corinthians,  one  that  tells  mightily  as  we  shall  soon 
see. 

We  have  seen  (I  Cor.  4  :  17;  16  :  10)  that  it  was  a 
little  uncertain  how  Timothy  would  be  received  in 
Corinth.  We  do  not  know  whether  he  came  back  to 
Corinth  or  met  Paul  in  Macedonia.  He  is  with  him 
when  he  writes  II  Corinthians  (1  : 1).  Findlay*  follows 
Beyschlag  and  Pfleiderer  in  thinking  that  Timothy 
was  mistreated  in  Corinth  by  some  one  who  took  it  as 
» Art.  Paul  in  Hastings'  "  D.  B." 


192  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

an  insult  that  Paul  had  sent  another  instead  of  com- 
ing himself.  According  to  this  view  Paul  has  this 
matter  in  mind  in  II  Cor.  2:5-11,  not  merely  the 
case  of  the  incestuous  man  in  I  Cor.  5,  a  matter  easily 
disposed  of.  Paul  may,  indeed,  have  written  another 
letter  to  Corinth  demanding  an  apology  from  this  in- 
solent brother  and  his  following,  the  writing  of  which 
caused  Paul  anguish  of  heart,  though  it  was  necessary 
to  do  it  (II  Cor.  2  : 1-4;  7  : 5-16).  The  majority 
stood  with  Paul  on  this  point,  though  a  minority  were 
still  obstinate.  A  part  of  this  theory  is  that  Titus  ^  was 
the  bearer  of  this  lost  letter  sent  also  from  Ephesus. 
One  cannot  be  dogmatic  here,  for  the  data  are  some- 
what conflicting.  It  is,  however,  a  possible  interpre- 
tation of  a  difficult  stage  in  Paul's  career. 

Another  point  coupled  with  this  theory  is  that  in 
II  Cor.  1:9;  6:9  Paul  alludes  to  a  well-nigh  fatal 
illness  which  overtook  him  in  Asia.  The  revolt  in 
Galatia  and  Corinth  added  to  his  illness  made  this  the 
darkest  hour  of  PauFs  life  so  far.^  We  are  indebted 
to  this  experience  for  Paul's  interpretation  of  death  in 
II  Cor.  4  and  5. 

But,  whether  or  not  Titus  was  sent  to  Corinth  with 
another  Epistle  now  lost  to  us,  he  was  sent  there. 
Paul  was  not  wholly  satisfied  with  the  effect  of  I  Corin- 
thians, or  new  problems  arose  (if  Timothy  so  reported). 

*  Ramsay,  "St.  Paul  the  Traveller,"  p.  284,  thinks  that  Titus 
was  the  bearer  of  1  Cor.  rather  than  the  brethren  in  1  Cor.  16  :  17. 
»  Findlay,  Art.  Paul  in  Hastings'  "D.  B." 


PAUL  THE  TEACHER  OF  THE  CHURCHES  193 

Then  he  sends  Titus.  It  does  not  appear  that  Titus 
was  with  Paul  during  the  second  missionary  tour. 
Ramsay/  with  his  usual  brilliant  acumen,  suggests 
that  possibly  the  Judaizers  had  interpreted  Paul's 
dropping  Titus  after  the  Jerusalem  conference  for 
Timothy,  who  was  circumcised,  as  a  back-down  on 
Paul's  part.  So  Paul  replied  by  taking  Titus  with 
him  on  this  third  tour.  After  Timothy  returned  from 
Corinth,  he  sent  Titus  there  to  confront  the  Judaizers 
themselves. 

It  is,  indeed,  curious  that  Luke  nowhere  in  Acts 
alludes  to  Titus.  Ramsay^  thinks  that  this  was  due 
to  the  fact  that  Titus  was  kin  to  Luke,  who  does  not 
mention  his  own  name.  This  hint  has  been  carried 
further  by  Prof.  Alexander  Souter,^  who  proposes  the 
idea  that  Titus  was  Luke's  own  brother.  He  agrees 
with  Ramsay  that  Luke  was  one  of  the  two  other  en- 
voys besides  Titus  sent  by  Paul  from  Macedonia  to 
Corinth  (II  Cor.  8  :  16-24).  He  takes  "the  brother" 
in  II  Cor.  8  :  18)  to  be  Titus'  brother  (Luke).  This 
is  possible.  However,  we  know  that  both  Timothy 
and  Erastus  had  been  sent  to  Macedonia  (Acts  19  :  22). 
If  these  were  still  in  Macedonia  with  Luke,  the  two 
would  come  naturally  out  of  these  three. 

So  then,  besides  the  riot  in  Ephesus  that  forced  Paul 
out  of  Ephesus,  we  may  have  to  think  of  possible 


>  "St.  Paul  the  TraveUer,"  p.  285. 
»  "St.  Paul  the  Traveller,"  p.  390. 
'  The  Expository  Times,  1907,  and  Luke,  Hastings,  "D.  C.  G," 


194  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

illness  as  combining  therewith.  Indeed,  his  illness 
may  have  been  the  reason  that  the  craftsmen  of  De- 
metrius did  not  get  him.  If  so,  his  weak  condition 
would  greatly  enhance  his  peril  from  the  mob. 

5.  The  Suspense  in  Troas. — It  had  been  his  hope  to 
meet  Titus  at  Troas  (II  Cor.  2  :  12)  on  his  return 
from  Corinth  via  Macedonia.  But  the  rather  sudden 
departure  from  Corinth  had  brought  Paul  to  Troas 
ahead  of  time.  None  the  less,  he  is  restless  in  spirit 
because  he  does  not  find  Titus.  His  bodily  weakness 
would  make  the  disappointment  harder  to  bear.  He 
had  expected  to  preach  the  Gospel  at  Troas,  where  little 
had  apparently  been  accomplished  when  he  was  here 
before.  The  door  of  opportunity  was  now  wide  open 
(II  Cor.  2  :  12),  but  he  was  not  able  to  enter  it.  It 
is  often  true  of  ministers  that  an  overwrought  physical 
condition  closes  the  door  that  has  opened  for  them. 
With  a  sad  heart  Paul  moves  on  from  Troas  toward 
Macedonia,  hoping  to  see  Titus.  Corinth  fills  his 
heart  now.  Is  the  work  at  Corinth  to  be  ruined? 
If  that  may  happen,  his  work  everywhere  may  go  to 
pieces.  The  world  looks  dark  for  the  great  Apostle 
who  journeys  alone  from  Troas.  He  is  "pressed  on 
every  side,"  "perplexed,"  "pursued,"  "smitten  down," 
"always  delivered  unto  death  for  Jesus'  sake"  (II  Cor. 
4  :8-ll).     Is  it  worth  while  after  all? 

6.  The  Rebound  in  Macedonia:  II  Corinthians. — 
It  is  a  remarkable  transition  that  Paul  makes  in 
II  Cor.  2  :  14.     He  breaks  forth  into  a  psean  of  praise 


PAUL  THE  TEACHER  OF  THE  CHURCHES  195 

to  Grod  for  the  glory  and  dignity  of  the  Christian 
ministry  without  any  apparent  cause.  The  de- 
spondency at  Troas  is  suddenly  replaced  by  the  spirit 
of  triumph  in  Macedonia.  It  is  not  till  7  : 5  that  he 
resumes  the  thread  of  the  narrative  in  2  :  13.  He 
comes  back  to  the  historical  situation  in  Macedonia 
in  7  :5-16  where  the  explanation  of  the  passionate 
outburst  in  2:14-7:4  is  found.  "For  even  when 
we  were  come  into  Macedonia  our  flesh  had  no  relief, 
but  we  were  afflicted  on  every  side;  without  were 
fightings,  within  were  fears."  God  "comforted  us 
by  the  coming  of  Titus." 

That  was  joy  of  itself  to  see  Titus  again,  but  his  story 
gave  yet  more  joy.  He  "told  us  your  longing,  your 
mourning,  your  zeal  for  me."  Titus  then  had  accom- 
plished what  Timothy  failed  to  do.  If  Timothy  had 
been  mistreated  by  the  incestuous  person  or  by  one 
who  had  resented  Paul's  assertions  of  apostolic  au- 
thority (I  Cor.  5:4  f.),  he  had  not  written  primarily 
for  their  sakes,  but  for  the  good  of  the  whole  church 
(II  Cor.  7  :  12).  He  had  written  sharply  and  with  bitter 
tears  (II  Cor.  2  : 4)  and  anguish  of  heart.  We  are  here 
assuming  a  lost  letter  between  I  Corinthians  and  II 
Corinthians,  to  which^he  is  referring.  He  had  put  the 
church  to  the  test  in  the  matter  (II  Cor.  2:9).  He 
had,  in  fact,  regretted  the  writing  of  the  letter  after 
Titus  had  gone  with  it  (7:8).  He  disliked  so  to  give 
pain.  But  now  he  regrets  it  no  more.  He  is  even 
glad  that  they  were  made  sorry  (7:8),  since  it  had 


196  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

resulted  in  repentance.  Mere  sorrow  is  not  repentance. 
Their  sorrow  was  a  godly  sort  that  had  led  to  repen- 
tance. Hence,  he  is  glad  that  he  wrote,  since  he  sees 
the  revolution  wrought  in  the  church  (7:11).  He 
is  comforted  since  Titus  was  comforted  by  them 
(7  :  13).  He  had  dared  to  glory  of  them  to  Titus,  and 
now  he  knows  that  it  is  the  truth. 

One  can  but  regret  the  loss  of  this  third  Epistle. 
It  went  to  the  heart  of  the  controversy  between  Paul 
and  his  enemies  in  Corinth.  Hausrath*  has  suggested 
that  we  possess  that  letter  in  II  Cor.  10-13  which  has 
somehow  come  to  be  joined  on  to  the  fourth  Epistle, 
our  II  Cor.  1-9.  This  view  has  found  some  support  in 
spite  of  Klopper's  refutations  in  1874,  as  from  Dr.  J.  H. 
Kennedy,  The  Second  and  Third  Epistles  to  the  Corin- 
thians (1900).^  But  Dr.  Dawson  Walker'  presents  very 
strong  arguments  against  the  partition  of  II  Corinthians. 
We  treat  the  Epistle  as  a  unit. 

If  so,  what  is  the  explanation  of  the  great  difference 
in  tone  between  chapters  1-7  and  10-13?  An  ade- 
quate reason  is  not  diflBcult  to  find.  Indeed,  it  is  clear 
from  II  Cor.  2:5  that  only  *'in  part"  had  sorrow 
come  to  the  Corinthians.  True  (verse  6),  it  v/as  the 
majority  ("the  many")  who  took  PauFs  side  and  in- 
flicted the  needed  punishment  whether  on  the  in- 
cestuous person  or  an  insolent  offender  against  PauFs 

*  "Der  Viercapitel  Brief  des  Paulus  an  die  Corinther." 
'Dr.    Dawson    Walker  (Review  and  Expositor,  Jan.,  1907) 
quotes  Adeney,  Bacon,  Konig,  McGiffert,  Plummer,  Schmiedel 
for  it.  ^  Ibid. 


PAUL  THE  TEACHER  OF  THE  CHURCHES  197 

authority  in  the  person  of  Timothy.  Paul  wished 
"obedience  in  all  things"  (verse  9).  It  was  the 
gracious  acquiescence  of  the  majority  of  the  church 
that  led  Paul  to  write  in  the  exultant  strain  of  2  :  14- 
7  :  16.  In  1  :  3-2  :  13  Paul  had  explained  the  sorrow- 
ful train  of  circumstances  that  led  up  to  his  depression 
of  mind  when  Titus  came.  He  attributes  his  recovery 
of  heart  to  the  loyal  friends  in  Corinth.  But  Titus 
had  told  Paul  the  whole  story.  The  Judaizing  emis- 
saries still  had  a  following  (II  Cor.  3  :1;  11  :22  f.; 
12  :  11).  There  are  now  only  two  parties  in  the  church 
at  Corinth,  the  PauHne  and  the  Judaizing  or  Anti- 
Pauline.  The  repeated  efforts  of  Paul  to  compel  sub- 
mission and  to  overcome  the  Judaizing  faction  had 
brought  matters  to  a  high  state  of  tension.  Thus  it 
will  appear  that  the  tone  of  Paul  in  II  Cor.  10-13 
towards  the  recalcitrant  minority  really  suits  the  situ- 
ation better  after  the  return  of  Titus  than  before. 

Paul  really  had,  it  seems,  three  motives  in  writing 
this  very  remarkable  Epistle,  which  reveals  his  inner 
consciousness  better  than  any  of  his  writings.^  In 
the  Thessalonian  Epistles  the  conflict  of  Christianity 
with  the  Man  of  Sin  (the  Kingdom  of  God  vs.  the 
Kingdom  of  Rome)  showed  that  eschatological  prob- 
lems held  a  prominent  place  in  Paul's  thoughts.  But 
recently  Paul  has  looked  death  in  the  face  and  he  has 
passed  through  "  a  crisis  in  his  soul "  ^  which  is  reflected 

»  Sabatier,  "The  Apostle  Paul,"  p.  165. 
»Sabatier,  "The  Apostle  Paul,"  p.  179. 


198  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

in  II  Cor.  4  and  5.  It  is  an  intensely  personal  Epistle 
and  wonderfully  exemplifies  the  trials  and  consolations 
of  a  minister  of  Christ.  The  three  motives  for  writing 
again  and  at  once  were  to  express  liis  gratitude  to  the 
majority  with  an  explanation  of  his  conduct  toward 
them  (1-7),  the  pushing  on  of  the  collection  for  the 
poor  saints  at  Jerusalem  (8  and  9)  and  the  rebuke 
of  the  stubborn  minority  (10-13).  Each  of  these  sec- 
tions of  the  Epistle  stands  to  itself  in  a  sense,  yet  all 
three  concur  and  harmonize  with  the  actual  situation. 

We  do  not  know  who  carried  the  Epistle.  Ramsay^ 
considers  very  improbable  the  usual  notion  that  the 
envoys  mentioned  in  II  Cor.  8  :  16-24  conveyed  it. 
But  Findlay^  follows  the  old  view  that  Paul  exhorts 
the  church  at  Corinth  to  show  proper  respect  to  these 
three  "messengers  of  the  churches"  "in  the  face  of  the 
churches  "  as  the  bearers  of  the  Epistle  as  well  as  agents 
for  the  collection.  The  charge  may  have  a  reference 
to  their  previous  mistreatment  of  Timothy.  If  this 
view  is  correct,  Timothy  was  not  one  of  the  three, 
since  he  sends  his  salutation  with  Paul  to  the  church 
(1  : 1).  The  committee  would  then  probably  be  Titus, 
Luke,  Erastus.  We  are  grateful  for  this  discussion 
of  the  great  collection.  It  shows  how  Paul  enlisted 
the  churches  in  the  enterprise,  what  difiiculties  he  met, 
what  success  he  attained.  The  comity  of  the  churches 
is  also  manifest.    Paul  is  anxious  to  stir  Achaia  on 

»  "St.  Paul  the  Traveller,"  p.  286. 
»  Art.  Paul  in  Hastings'  "D.  B." 


PAUL  THE  TEACHER  OF  THE  CHURCHES  199 

this  subject.  They  had  been  kept  so  busy  by  the 
Judaizers  in  regulating  Paul's  theology  that  they  had 
overlooked  the  matter  of  the  collection. 

If  the  closing  chapters  (10-13)  seem  harsh  and  bitter, 
one  must  recall  Acts  15,  Gal.  2,  and  I  Cor.  1-4,  besides 
the  many  hints  in  II  Cor.  1-7.  Paul  has  reached  the 
point  where  endurance  ceases  to  be  a  virtue.  The 
Judaizers  turn  every  overture  for  peace  into  weakness. 
They  ridicule  his  forbearance  and  his  threats.  They 
malign  him,  they  pervert  all  that  he  says  and  does. 
They  do  not  wish  to  be  satisfied.  They  only  wish 
new  occasions  for  injuring  Paul.  Personal  controversy 
is  always  to  be  regretted.  It  is  sorrowful  to  reflect 
how  easily  theological  controversy  lapses  into  personal- 
ities. But  Paul  will  not  surrender  to  this  insolent 
minority.  He  will  expose  them.  He  does  it  with  the 
skill  of  a  master.  One  is  reminded  of  Matt.  23,  where 
Jesus*  invective  against  the  Pharisees  in  the  temple 
is  recorded.  Paul  uses  here  irony,  ridicule,  sarcasm, 
denunciation,  threat.  He  is  holding  the  rod  in  his  hand 
as  he  writes.  He  will  wield  it  when  he  comes  if  neces- 
sary. One  must  remember  that  Paul  here  is  using  the 
authority  of  the  Apostle  which  the  Lord  gave  him 
(12  :  12;  13  :  10).  Ordinary  ministers  may  well  hesi- 
tate before  they  assume  exactly  this  tone  even  under 
some  provocation.  But  the  time  does  come  even 
now  when  there  is  nothing  left  for  the  true  preacher 
to  do  but  to  lift  up  his  voice  and  spare  not  (II  Cor. 
13 : 2). 


200  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

7.  The  Triumph  in  Corinth. — ^Paul  distinctly  im- 
plied that  he  would  not  come  at  once  to  Corinth 
(II  Cor.  12 :  20;  13  : 1,  5,  10).  It  would  be  only  wise 
to  give  this  powerful  Epistle  time  to  have  its  effect 
before  he  went  himself.  Luke  says  (Acts  20  ;  2)  that 
Paul  gave  "much  exhortation"  in  "those  parts." 
We  may  suppose,  therefore,  that  Paul  and  Timothy 
went  on  through  Macedonia  and  "round  about  unto 
Illyricum"  (Rom.  15  :  19),  since  after  reaching  Corinth 
Paul  will  write  to  Rome  about  that  ministry  when  he 
"fully  preached  the  Gospel  of  Christ."  He  here,  as 
always,  made  it  his  ambition  to  preach  Christ  where 
he  had  not  yet  been  proclaimed  so  as  not  to  build  on 
another's  foundation  (Rom.  15 :  20).  We  have  no 
record  of  this  ministry  as  indeed  we  have  none  of 
PauFs  labors  in  Arabia,  Judea,  Cilicia,  Crete,  Spain, 
if  he  did  go  there. 

One  could  wish  for  some  account  of  the  reception 
of  II  Corinthians  on  the  part  of  the  Judaizing  faction. 
But  Luke  expressly  tells  us  that  Paul  came  to  Greece 
and  spent  three  months  there  (Acts  20  :  2  f.).  At  last, 
therefore,  he  came  and  he  staid.  This  simple  story 
gives  eloquent  testimony  to  the  eflScacy  of  the  Epistle. 
Doubtless  the  Judaizing  emissaries  disappeared  before 
Paul  came.  The  opposition  dwindled  away.  When  Paul 
actually  arrived,  all  is  at  peace  once  more.  He  is  loved 
and  honored  as  he  ought  to  have  been  all  the  time. 

8.  The  Appeal  to  the  Deserting  Galatians. — Paul  had 
saved  the  day  at  Corinth  after  a  terrific  struggle.     But 


PAUL  THE  TEACHER  OF  THE  CHURCHES  201 

the  cause  has  nearly  been  lost  in  Galatia.  I  do  not 
raise  again  the  question  whether  the  Epistle  to  the 
Galatians  was  addressed  to  the  Roman  province  as 
a  whole,  or  to  the  Lycaonian  and  Phrygian  disciples 
alone  (South  Galatia),  or  to  the  real  Celts  (North 
Galatia).  That  is  an  interesting  historical  inquiry, 
but,  apart  from  a  few  incidental  references,  the  inter- 
pretation of  the  Epistle  is  not  materially  changed 
whichever  theory  one  adopts. 

The  Epistle  throws  practically  no  Hght  on  the  time 
and  place  of  its  composition.  In  this  respect  it  is 
quite  unUke  the  Thessalonian  and  Corinthian  letters. 
As  to  place,  in  fact,  there  is  absolutely  nothing  to  help 
one  form  an  intelligent  opinion.  We  know  a  little 
about  the  relation  of  the  date  to  Paul's  first  visit  to  the 
readers  of  the  Epistle.  He  had  preached  the  gospel 
to  them  rather  by  accident  "because  of  an  infirmity 
of  the  flesh  "  (Gal.  4  :  13)  "  the  former  time  "  (or  "  first  ")• 
Does  that  mean  that  he  had  preached  to  them  on  two 
separate  visits  before  he  wrote?  That  is  possible, 
but  not  necessary.  If  he  is  not  writing  to  the  Celts  of 
North  Galatia,  two  visits  would  include  the  first  and 
second  tours.  If  he  is  addressing  the  Celts,  the  date 
would  come  after  Paul  had  passed  through  "  the  upper 
country  to  Ephesus"  (Acts  19  : 1)  on  the  third  tour.  In 
that  case  the  letter  would  be  written  either  from 
Ephesus  or  from  Corinth.  On  the  other  hand,  if 
Paul  does  not  mean  that  he  had  been  twice  among  the 
Galatians  and  is  writing  only  to  South  Galatia,  the 


202  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

date  could  come  soon  after  the  first  tour  and  not  far 
from  the  time  of  the  Jerusalem  Conference.  The 
place  could  be  Antioch. 

Where  there  are  so  many  alternatives  one  welcomes 
everything  that  will  help.  In  Gal.  1  : 6  Paul  marvels 
"that  ye  are  so  quickly  removing  from  him  that  called 
you  in  the  grace  of  Christ  unto  a  different  gospel." 
But  here  again  we  do  not  know  PauFs  standard  of 
comparison  for  "so  quickly"  nor  the  visit  which  forms 
the  starting-point.  All  that  we  really  know  is  that  in 
a  few  years  from  his  last  visit  the  Galatians  are  deserting 
Paul  and  his  gospel  of  grace  for  the  weak  and  beggarly 
elements  of  the  world  (4:9).  In  lieu  of  any  decisive 
external  evidence,  I  follow  Lightfoot's  plan^  in  placing 
this  Epistle  just  before  Romans.  In  these  two  Epistles 
we  have  the  same  general  theme.  In  Romans  Paul 
gives  a  more  orderly,  impersonal  and  dispassionate 
discussion  of  justification  by  faith.  In  Galatians  the 
subject  is  at  white  heat.  He  is  all  aglow  with  fire 
and  indignation.  It  would  seem,  therefore,  that 
Galatians  was  written  before,  but  not  long  before, 
Romans.  We  know  that  Romans  was  written  while 
he  was  at  Corinth,  just  before  he  started  on  his  last 
journey  to  Jerusalem  with  a  view  of  going  to  Rome 
and  Spain  (Rom.  15 :  22-31).  The  doctrinal  atmos- 
phere of  the  two  Epistles  is  the  same.  Indeed,  it  is 
not  difficult  to  hear  the  echo  of  II  Corinthians  in 

^"Comm.  on  Galatians."  But  cf.  Ramsay,  "Historical 
Ck)mm.  on  Galatians." 


PAUL  THE  TEACHER  OF  THE  CHURCHES  203 

Galatians.  The  heavy  blows  that  did  such  good  exe- 
cution in  Corinth  are  now  turned  upon  Galatia.  Paul 
had  heat  on  the  subject  of  the  Judaizing  controversy 
about  the  time  of  the  Jerusalem  Conference,  but  it 
is  hard  to  think  that  the  situation  in  Galatia  had  de- 
veloped so  far  as  we  find  it  in  the  Epistle.  With  some 
hesitation,  therefore,  I  put  Galatians  toward  the 
beginning  of  Paul's  "  three  months"  in  Greece.  Romans 
came  at  the  close.  In  the  fall  of  57  (or  56)  A.D., 
therefore,  when  Paul  reached  Corinth,  we  may  sup- 
pose that  messengers  had  come  over  from  Galatia  to 
tell  the  story  of  the  desertion  of  the  Galatians. 

The  situation  was  really  very  bad.  They  had  been 
bewitched  by  some  wizard  among  the  Judaizers 
(Gal.  3:1).  One  could  wish  to  know  who  this  man 
was.  The  Galatians  at  first  had  treated  Paul  like 
an  angel  (4  :  14),  had  even  been  ready  to  pluck  out 
their  eyes  and  give  them  to  him  (when  he  had  eye 
trouble?).  But  now  they  look  upon  him  as  an 
enemy  because  he  tells  them  the  truth.  They  have 
wandered  after  a  false  gospel  which  is  no  gospel  (1:7) 
at  all.  They  have  fallen  away  from  grace  and  gone 
back  under  the  bondage  of  the  law  (5  : 3  f.).  They 
had  been  running  well  till  this  hinderer  came.  Now 
the  Galatians  have  largely  gone  over  to  Judaism  in 
the  observance  of  Jewish  days  and  feasts.  Paul  is 
afraid  that  his  labor  is  all  in  vain  (4  :  11).  These 
Judaizers  do  not  themselves  keep  the  law  which  they 
have  laid  upon  the  necks  of  the   Gentiles  (6  :  13). 


204  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

Paul  pronounces  an  anathema  on  these  perverters  of 
the  gospel  (1  : 8  f.).  He  cares  nothing  for  the  favor 
of  men  in  a  matter  of  this  kind,  this  Apostle  who  was 
all  things  to  all  men  if  so  be  he  could  save  some.  It 
is,  indeed,  a  fierce  indictment  which  the  Apostle  has 
drawn  and  vividly  portrays  the  success  of  the  Judaizers 
since  Paul  was  there.  It  shows  well  also  what  would 
have  been  the  fate  of  Corinth  if  Paul  had  not  put  his 
whole  soul  into  the  struggle  there.  The  desertion 
of  the  Galatians,  however,  astonished  Paul  beyond 
measure  (4:9).  They  were  Gentiles  and  had  tasted 
freedom  in  Christ. 

Paul  changes  his  tone  from  invective  to  passionate 
pleading  (4  :  19  f.).  He  is  keenly  aUve  to  the  bondage 
of  Pharisaism  since  he  once  wore  that  yoke.  He 
calls  the  Galatians  "my  little  children"  and  wishes 
that  he  could  see  them  once  more,  for  then  he  would 
change  his  tone.  He  is  in  travail  again  over  them. 
Meanwhile,  he  pleads  with  them  to  stand  fast  in  the 
freedom  which  Christ  gave  them  and  not  to  be  en- 
tangled in  the  yoke  of  bondage  (5:1).  He  does  not 
mean  license,  but  liberty  (5  :  13).  He  even  takes  the 
pen  in  his  own  hand  and  gives  a  closing  summary  in 
large  letters  (6  :  11).  Did  he  have  eye  trouble  still? 
He  closes  with  a  demand  that  no  one  trouble  him  more. 
He  has  the  right  to  that  respect  by  reason  of  "the 
marks  of  Jesus,"  "branded"  on  his  body  (6  :  17)  in 
perils  oft  for  Christ.  It  is  a  powerful  plea,  and  must 
have  had  an  immediate  effect.     One  may  suppose  that, 


PAUL  THE  TEACHER  OF  THE  CHURCHES  205 

as  the  Judaizers  were  driven  out  of  Corinth,  so  they 
were  expelled  out  of  Galatia  by  this  tremendous 
polemic. 

As  an  apologetic  for  spiritual  Christianity  the  Epistle 
to  the  Galatians  has  never  been  surpassed.  The 
sparks  fly  hot  from  the  anvil.  The  book  met  a  great 
crisis  and  solved  it.  Luther  used  it  with  telling  effect 
also  in  the  Reformation,  in  his  call  to  justification  by 
faith,  not  by  works.  The  manifest  genuineness  of  the 
Epistle  has  made  it  a  bulwark  of  the  faith  to-day. 
The  heart  of  the  gospel  is  in  the  Epistle.  It  is  a 
permanent  exposition  of  the  spiritual  life  as  against 
mere  ceremonialism  on  the  one  hand  and  license  in 
morals  on  the  other.  The  note  of  reaUty  is  the  dom- 
inant one  here,  the  note  of  a  live  faith,  a  faith  that  shows 
work  as  proof  of  the  faith.  The  Apostle  has  to  vin- 
dicate his  right  to  speak  to  the  Galatians  with  authority 
(1  and  2).  He  then  expounds  his  gospel  to  them 
(3  and  4)  and  pleads  with  them  to  be  true  to  this 
gospel  of  freedom  and  Hfe  (5  and  6). 

9.  Paul's  Gospel:  The  Epistle  to  the  Romans. — It 
is  probable  that  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans  was  not 
written  till  shortly  before  PauFs  departure  from 
Corinth.  He  is  expecting  to  come  to  them  soon  (Rom. 
1  :  10;  15 1 22-25).  He  must  first  go  by  Jerusalem 
(15 :  26-28),  but  it  is  manifest  that  he  expects  to  start 
for  Jerusalem  promptly  (15  :  25).  We  find  him  in 
Philippi  during  the  passover  feast  (Acts  20:6)  of 
this  year  on  the  way  to  Jerusalem.    We  may  assume. 


206  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

therefore,  that  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans  was  written 
from  Corinth  toward  the  close  of  winter  in  A.D. 
57  (or  56).  The  bearer  of  the  letter  was  "Phoebe 
our  sister,  who  is  a  servant  of  the  church  that  is  at 
Cenchreae"  (Rom.  16  : 1).  Her  going  to  Rome  gave 
Paul  the  occasion  for  writing  to  the  church  there. 

This  is  the  first  of  Paul's  epistles  to  a  church  that 
was  not  established  by  him.  He  recognizes  that  this 
point  will  be  observed  and  justifies  it  on  the  broad 
ground  of  his  apostleship  to  the  Gentiles  (15  :  15  f.). 
He  acknowledges  his  debt  to  all  the  Gentiles,  both 
Greeks  and  Barbarians  (1  :  14).  He  feels  hopeful 
that  they  may  be  mutually  helpful  and  confesses  to  a 
desire  to  some  fruit  among  them  as  well  as  among  the 
rest  of  the  Gentiles  (1  :  12  f.).  In  writing  to  them  he 
does  not  wish  to  infringe  upon  the  work  of  others 
(15  :  20).  He  had  always  avoided  that.  We  do  not 
know,  indeed,  who  established  the  church  at  Rome. 
The  numerous  friends  of  Paul  and  former  fellow- 
workers  in  various  parts  of  the  empire  now  in  Rome 
(Rom.  16)  explain  to  some  extent  the  growth  of  the 
church  there.  Some  of  the  these  names  are  Greek, 
some  Latin,  some  Jewish.  Doubtless,  the  member- 
ship as  a  whole  consisted  of  all  three  elements  with  a 
predominance  of  the  Gentile  element,  since  it  is  on 
that  ground  that  Paul  justifies  his  writing  to  the  church. 
But  Paul  writes  to  the  church  as  a  whole  without  con- 
sidering now  one  section,  now  the  other!  ^  Whether 
» Sabatier,  "The  Apostle  Paul,"  p.  190  f. 


PAUL  THE  TEACHER  OF  THE  CHURCHES  207 

the  church  arose  under  Jewish  or  Gentile  auspices  we 
cannot  tell.  The  influx  of  the  large  body  of  Christian 
workers  mentioned  in  Rom.  16  (for  I  take  this  chapter 
as  a  genuine  part  of  the  Epistle)  was  enough  of  itself 
to  explain  the  rise  and  growth  of  the  church  in  the 
imperial  city.  The  tide  of  travel  and  life  was  toward 
Rome  and  drew  many  Christians  along. 

It  is  evident  that  Paul  had  already  much  influence 
in  Rome.  The  names  of  his  followers  and  friends 
given  in  Rom.  16  prove  that  the  church  already,  be- 
fore he  wrote,  had  a  positive  Pauline  influence.  The 
names  of  Prisca  and  Aquila,  already  so  closely  Hnked 
with  that  of  Paul  in  Corinth  and  Ephesus,  greet  us 
first  on  the  list.  Paul  bears  testimony  to  their  devo- 
tion to  him  at  the  risk  of  their  Hves  (Rom.  16  :  4),  per- 
haps at  Ephesus,  and  also  to  the  gratitude  of  "all  the 
churches  of  the  Gentiles."  It  is  possible,  according 
to  Hort,*  that  Prisca  was  connected  with  one  of  the 
important  families  (Priscus  was  a  great  Roman  name) 
and  was  not  a  Jewess.  Luke  only  calls  Aquila  a  Jew 
of  Pontus.  At  any  rate,  they  are  both  here  and  have 
opened  their  house  for  a  meeting  of  a  portion  or  all  of 
the  church  at  Rome  (16 : 5).  Epsenetus  is  from 
Asia  (16  :  5).  Paul  knows  of  the  great  labors  of  Mary 
at  Rome  (16 : 6).  Andronicus  and  Junias  Paul  calls 
his  kinsmen  and  fellow-prisoners.  They  have  a 
reputation  among  the  Apostles  and  have  been  Chris- 

*  "  Prolegomena  to  St.  Paul's  Epistles  to  the  Romans  and  to 
Ephesians,"  p.  14  f.  Cf .  also  Sanday  and  Headlam  on  " Romans." 


208  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

tians  longer  than  Paul  (16  : 7).  All  the  names  called 
are  dear  to  Paul  for  one  reason  or  another.  Nor  does 
he  name  all  whom  he  knows  in  Rome  (16 :  14  f.). 
From  the  personal  side  Paul  has  ample  justification 
for  writing  to  the  church  at  Rome. 

The  Epistle  gives  us  a  glimpse  of  Paul's  life  in  Corinth 
during  the  three  months  there.  Gains  is  his  host, 
and  of  the  whole  church  in  truth  (16 :  23).  Paul 
had  baptized  him  (I  Cor.  1  :  14)  and  he  was  evidently 
a  man  of  importance.  He  may  or  may  not  have  been 
the  recipient  of  the  third  Epistle  of  John.  Erastus, 
who  has  been  with  Paul  in  Ephesus  and  Macedonia 
(Acts  19  :  22)  is  the  treasurer  of  the  city  of  Corinth. 
Not  many  mighty  were  called  there,  but  some  were. 
Some  of  Paul's  kinsmen  are  with  him  here  and  Timothy 
(16  :  21).  We  know  the  name  of  the  scribe  to  whom 
Paul  dictated  the  Epistle,  Tertius,  who  puts  in  a 
sentence  of  his  own  (16  :  22).  We  are  grateful  for  all 
these  personal  items. 

But  Paul  had  a  larger  and  stronger  reason  for  writing 
to  the  church  at  Rome  than  these.  It  is  no  less  than 
the  first  step  of  his  plan  of  campaign  in  the  west.  He 
is  now  at  the  zenith  of  his  work.  He  has  established 
powerful  churches  in  Cilicia  and  Syria,  Galatia  and 
Asia,  Macedonia  and  Achaia.  He  looks  to  the  great 
west  and  longs  to  win  it  to  Christ.  Rome  is  on  the 
way  to  Spain  and  must  be  the  base  of  operations  for 
the  work  in  Spain.  He  wishes,  therefore,  to  prepare 
their  minds    for  this   great    campaign    (15  :  24,  28). 


PAUL  THE  TEACHER  OF  THE  CHURCHES  209 

It  is  no  sudden  impulse  with  him.  He  has  long  had  the 
desire  to  come  to  Rome  itself  (15  :  23)  and  had  often- 
times purposed  to  come.  (1  :  13),  He  had  been  plan- 
ning for  this  journey  for  some  time  (Acts  19  :  21). 
From  Rome  he  could  reach  not  only  Spain,  but  also 
Gaul,  Germany,  North-western  Africa,  and  even 
Britain.  The  church  at  Rome  is  the  key  to  the  work 
in  the  western  half  of  the  empire!  *  Hence  Paul  wishes 
to  get  in  definite  touch  with  them  before  he  comes  to 
carry  out  his  plans.  We  now  see  in  outline  Paul's 
statesmanlike  grasp  of  the  situation  in  the  empire 
which  he  purposes  to  take  for  Christ. 

The  purpose  of  the  Epistle  was  not,  therefore, 
primarily  polemical^  as  was  true  of  Galatians.  Most 
likely  some  Judaizers  had  gone  on  to  Rome  in  pursuit 
of  their  plan  to  graft  Judaism  on  to  Gentile  Christianity. 
They  have  definitely  failed  in  the  east,  outside  of 
Jerusalem,  and  Paul  is  going  there.  They  are  in 
Rome  when  Paul  is  there  (Phil.  1  :  15  f.).  It  is  en- 
tirely possible  that  a  few  of  them  had  gone  on  to  Rome. 
But,  if  so,  they  have  made  little  headway  as  yet.  Paul 
does  indeed  discuss  the  Judaizing  controversy  which 
has  so  largely  consumed  his  energies  of  late,  but  he 
does  so  in  a  much  calmer  spirit  and  more  indirectly. 
The  treatment  of  meats  offered  to  idols  and  the  observ- 
ance of  Jewish  days  in  Rom.  14  and  15  indicate 
that  the  Jewish  problem  was  a  real  one  in  the  church 

*  Sabatier,  "The  Apostle  Paul,"  p.  188  f. 
"  Hort,  "Romans  and  Ephesians,"  p.  5  f. 


210  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

as  it  naturally  would  be  in  a  church  where  both  Jews 
and  Gentiles  mingled.  The  position  taken  is  that  held 
by  Paul  in  I  Cor.  8-10,  though  the  discussion  is  briefer 
and  with  less  heat.  The  Jerusalem  agreement  is  not 
alluded  to  in  either  instance,  and  had  long  ago  been 
abrogated  by  the  Judaizers,  though  Paul,  for  a  while  at 
least,  kept  this  part  of  the  settlement.  There  was,  to 
be  sure,  no  reason  to  refer  to  it,  now  that  the  Judaizers 
had  renewed  the  strife  and  were  violating  the  decision. 
The  rather,  Paul  presents  fundamental  considerations 
growing  out  of  the  Christian  principles  of  love  and 
forbearance. 

But  one  word  more  is  to  be  said.  Probably  most 
of  the  Roman  disciples  knew  of  the  world-wide  con- 
flict between  Paul  and  the  Judaizers.  They  had  heard 
the  perversion  of  Paul's  gospel.  It  was  only  proper 
that  Paul  should  give  them,  since  he  could  not  come 
to  them  at  once,  a  more  formal  exposition  of  what  his 
gospel  really  was.  He  is  fully  conscious  of  possessing 
a  definite  message  which  he  calls  his  gospel  (Rom.  2:16; 
16  :  25).  It  was  not  that  of  the  Judaizers.  He  is  not 
ashamed  to  preach  his  gospel  in  Rome  also  (1  :  15).  If 
it  was  good  enough  for  Corinth,  it  was  good  enough 
for  Rome.  He  wishes  them  to  be  established  accord- 
ing to  his  gospel  (16  :  25)  which  he  is  sure  is  the  mind 
of  Christ  (1  : 1,  cf.  Gal.  1  : 6-10).  This  Epistle  is 
not  a  treatise  nor  a  mere  book  of  systematic  theology. 
It  is  not  a  sermon.  It  is  at  bottom,  while  in  the  form 
of  an  Epistle,  a  careful  exposition  of  the  fundamental 


PAUL  THE  TEACHER  OF  THE  CHURCHES  211 

principles  of  Paul's  message  to  the  Gentiles  which  he 
considers  to  be  the  gospel  of  God  (Rom.  15  :  16) „ 
He  does  not  mean  to  imply  that  they  are  heretics  or 
ignorant  (15  :  14  f.).  He  will  confine  himself  to  what 
God  has  wrought  through  him  (15  :  18).  His  gospel 
is  the  gospel  of  experience.  It  is  well  to  remember, 
therefore,  that  in  this  most  abstract  of  Paul's  Epistles 
he  himself  grounds  his  doctrines  in  God's  dealing  with 
him.  He  will,  therefore,  attempt  to  expound  the  gospel 
to  them  in  Rome.  He  is  not  ashamed  of  that  gospel 
anywhere  (1  :  16). 

Findlay^  well  suggests  that  "fronting  the  imperial 
city,  Paul  rises  to  a  higher  stature  and  assumes  a  loftier 
accent.  The  added  stateliness  of  diction  and  ampli- 
tude of  treatment  betray  an  imagination,  and  a  states- 
manlike sense,  touched  by  the  majesty  of  Rome." 
The  Epistle  is  planned  upon  a  grander  scale  with  more 
artistic  and  literary  skill  than  the  preceding  ones.  He 
states  this  theme  in  1  :  17  to  be  the  revelation  of 
God's  righteousness  by  faith.  Around  this  central 
idea  he  developes  what  is  an  apologetic  for  his  whole 
career,  a  polemic  against  the  Judaizers,  a  fundamental 
and  philosophical  discussion  of  the  plan  of  redemption 
in  its  bearing  on  Gentile  and  Jew.  In  the  rest  of  chapter 
1,  Paul  proceeds  to  show  how  the  Gentiles  are  lost  with- 
out the  gospel.  But  the  Jew  is  not  a  whit  better  off 
because  he  does  not  live  up  to  his  increase  of  light 
(chapter  2  and  3  : 1-20).  In  2  :  21-31  Paul  expounds 
'  Art.  Paul  in  Hastings'  "D.  B." 


212  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

his  theory  of  the  plan  of  salvation.  He  then  shows 
how  at  bottom  it  is  in  harmony  with  the  covenant  of 
grace  as  shown  in  the  case  of  Abraham  (ch.  4).  He 
points  out  the  great  advantages  of  justification  by  faith 
in  practice  and  in  theoretical  comparison  between 
Christ  and  Adam  (chapter  5).  Paul  answers  the  ob- 
jection of  a  carping  Jew  who  might  urge  that  salvation 
by  grace  was  really  an  invitation  to  license.  Instead 
of  that  it  is  an  appeal  to  Hfe  in  Christ  since  one  has 
died  to  sin  (ch.  6  and  7  : 1-6).  But  the  consecrated 
life  is  not  an  easy  one  (7  : 7-25)  and  is  possible  only 
by  the  help  of  the  Holy  Spirit  who  makes  the  triumphant 
outcome  beyond  doubt  (ch.  8).  Here  we  reach  the 
conclusion  of  Paul's  theology  as  applied  to  justifica- 
tion and  sanctification.  He  feels  called  upon,  how- 
ever, to  relate  the  elective  purpose  of  God  to  the  salva- 
tion of  both  Jews  and  Gentiles  since  so  largely  the  Jews 
are  turning  away  from  Christ  (9-11).  The  whole  argu- 
ment is  magnificent  and  is  unsurpassed  for  profundity, 
analysis,  and  power.  He  makes  a  great  appeal  for 
consecration  to  Christ  and  mutual  helpfulness  (12-15). 
He  has,  in  reality,  given  us  his  philosophy  of  history 
and  his  hope  of  the  ultimate  triumph  of  the  gospel  over 
Jew  as  well  as  Gentile.  When  Paul  began  his  work 
it  was  doubtful  what  the  Gentiles  would  do.  Now  the 
Jew  is  the  problem.  We  can  only  be  grateful  for  this 
grand  exposition  of  the  mature  theology  of  Paul  at 
the  climax  of  his  career  written  with  dehberation  and 
care. 


PAUL  THE  TEACHER  OF  THE  CHURCHES  213 

10.  The  Gathering  Storm  at  Jerusalem. — ^The  horizon 
has  brightened  all  round  save  at  Jerusalem.  This 
city  has  continued  to  be  the  home  of  the  Judaizers. 
We  are  not  at  liberty  to  say  that  any  of  the  Apostles 
sympathized  with  them.  It  way  be  assumed  that  the 
Apostles  remained  firm  in  their  compact  with  Paul 
(Gal.  2:9).  James,  the  chief  Jerusalem  elder,  has 
continued  to  be  Paul's  friend,  as  will  appear  on  Paul's 
arrival  there.  But  the  Jerusalem  church  was  very 
large  and  the  Judaizers  very  active.  It  would  be  easy 
in  the  long  absence  of  Paul  to  misrepresent  his  real 
position.  The  noise  of  the  conflict  between  Paul  and 
the  Judaizers  would  reach  Jerusalem.  The  Judaizing 
missionaries  would  return  to  report,  and  so  the  Jerusalem 
church  would  have  the  full  benefit  of  the  Judaizing 
side  of  the  controversy. 

Paul  was  not  unaware  of  the  situation  in  Jerusalem. 
While  at  Ephesus  he  was  planning  to  go  to  Jerusalem 
(Acts  19 :  21),  though  when  he  wrote  I  Corinthians  he 
was  thinking  of  sending  the  collection  by  messengers  of 
the  churches  with  letters  to  Jerusalem  (I  Cor.  16  : 3  f.) 
and  to  go  himself  only  if  it  seemed  iheet.  But  be- 
fore he  leaves  Corinth  it  is  clear  that  he  must  go  him- 
self because  of  the  disobedient  in  Judea  (Rom.  15  :  31). 
He  had  used  the  utmost  prudence  in  the  collection 
to  be  above  suspicion  in  the  eyes  of  men  (II  Cor.  8:21; 
12  :  17).  The  collection  has  been  going  on  quite  a 
while  and  is  now  complete.  Galatia,  Asia,  Macedonia, 
and  Achaia  (I  Cor.  16  : 1 ;  Rom.  15  :  26)  have  contributed 


214  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

toward  it.  Agents  of  the  churches  from  each  province 
accompanied  Paul  to  Jerusalem  (Acts  20  : 4  f.).  Some 
mss.  add  "  as  far  as  Asia,"  but  this  is  probably  a  gloss. 
Luke  goes  from  Philippi  with  him  to  Jerusalem  (Acts 
20  : 6).  Trophimus  of  Asia  is  expressly  mentioned 
in  Jerusalem  (Acts  21  :  29).  Paul  had  taken  a  contri- 
bution there  before  with  Barnabas  from  the  Gentile 
church  at  Antioch  to  Jerusalem  (Acts  11  :30),  and  it 
had  a  good  effect.  Besides,  he  had  promised  the  Apostles 
at  the  Jerusalem  Conference  to  do  this  thing  (Gal. 
2  :  10).  It  is  now  supremely  important  that  something 
be  done  to  conciliate  the  Jerusalem  Christians  who  have 
had  their  minds  poisoned  against  Paul  and  his  work. 
Paul  feels  that  it  is  only  just  for  the  Gentiles  thus  to 
acknowledge  this  debt  to  Jerusalem  (Rom.  15  :  27). 
He  is  not  certain  of  the  outcome  and  asks  for  the 
prayers  of  the  Roman  disciples  as  he  faces  his  ad- 
versaries again  in  their  home.  He  did  that  once 
and  was  victorious.  But  that  was  some  seven  or 
eight  years  ago.  Many  changes  have  come  mean- 
while. 

The  Judaizers  seem  to  have  vanished  from  Corinth 
when  Paul  came,  but  not  so  the  Jews.  They  are  as 
hostile  as  ever,  though  more  cautious.  They  do  not 
repeat  their  inglorious  experiment  before  Gallio,  but 
resort  to  a  secret  plot  to  kill  him  as  he  was  about  to 
sail  for  Syria,  possibly  on  a  pilgrim  ship  carrying 
Achaian  and  Asian  Jews  to  the  passover.*  Fortunately 
» Ramsay,  "St.  Paul  the  Traveller,"  p.  287. 


PAUL  THE  TEACHER  OF  THE  CHURCHES  215 

Paul  discovered  the  scheme  in  time  and  changed  his 
route  by  Philippi.  God  overrules  all  things.  One 
of  the  blessings  of  this  change  of  plan  was  that  Paul 
picked  up  Luke  again  in  Philippi  (Acts  20  : 6),  who 
goes  with  him  to  Rome  and  is  with  him  when  he  writes 
his  last  letter.  Luke  might,  indeed,  have  gone  on  to 
Jerusalem  with  Paul  anyhow,  meeting  him  at  Ephesus, 
but  the  sudden  change  in  Paul's  plans  indicates  the 
contrary.  Luke  passes  over  Paul's  week  in  Philippi 
with  a  verse  only.  One  could  wish  to  hear  again  of 
Lydia.  We  may  be  sure  of  Paul's  welcome  here,  for 
this  church  was  loyal  and  actively  helpful.  Perhaps 
Luke  and  Lydia  explain  much  of  their  zeal  for  Paul 
and  his  work.  The  rest  of  the  party  had  gone  on  to 
Troas  ahead  of  Paul,  and  Luke  also  came  after  the 
passover  in  a  voyage  that  took  five  days  (Acts  20  :  6). 

The  stay  at  Troas  gave  Paul  opportunity  to  do 
some  work  that  he  had  not  been  able  to  do  when  he 
was  last  here.  They  are  meeting  on  the  first  day  of 
the  week  (Acts  20 : 7),  after  the  fashion  that  was  soon 
to  become  universal  among  the  Christiajis  in  the  break- 
ing of  bread.  Luke  the  physician  was  interested  in 
the  death  and  recovery  of  Eutychus  (Acts  20  : 9-12), 
who  slept  and  fell  out  of  the  window  while  Paul 
preached.  It  was  a  long  sermon,  and  Paul  resumed 
it  after  bringing  life  back  to  the  young  man. 

We  may  not  tarry  long  with  Paul  and  his  party  on 
their  way  to  Jerusalem.  Paul  walked  alone  from 
Troas  to  Assos  where  he  again  took  ship  with  his  com- 


216  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

panions.  In  the  beautiful  spring-time  they  sail  slowly 
through  the  Grecian  Archipelago,  stopping  at  Mitylene, 
passing  by  Chios,  touching  at  Samos,  and  on  to  Miletus. 
Paul  did  not  wish  to  stop  at  Ephesus,  since  he  was  anx- 
ious to  reach  Jerusalem  by  Pentecost  (Acts  20  :  16). 
Besides,  he  had  probably  not  yet  forgotten  the  manner 
of  his  departure  just  a  year  before.  But  he  had  time 
at  Miletus  to  send  for  the  elders  of  the  church  at 
Ephesus,  who  came.  Luke  probably  heard '  the  ad- 
dress of  Paul  to  this  body  of  preachers  (Acts  20  :  17-35). 
Possibly  he  took  notes  at  the  time.  At  any  rate,  he 
has  preserved  it  with  wonderful  sympathy  and  tender- 
ness. Here  we  see  Paul  talking  as  a  preacher  to  preach- 
ers (cf.  Jesus  in  John  14-17).  He  speaks  about  his 
own  pastoral  problems  at  Ephesus  and  how  he  met 
them.  He  urges  them  to  fidelity  to  themselves  and  to 
the  flock,  to  feed  the  church  of  God,  to  guard  the  flock 
against  "grievous  wolves"  who  will  come  among 
them.  As  for  himself,  he  is  going  bound  in  the  spirit 
from  a  stern  sense  of  duty  to  Jerusalem,  not  knowing 
what  his  fate  there  will  be  except  that  the  Holy  Spirit 
has  repeatedly  told  him  that  bonds  and  afflictions 
await  him  (Acts  20  :  22  f.).  But  he  does  not  care  for 
that,  if  only  he  may  really  accomplish  his  course  and 
his  ministry.  His  life  is  not  dear  to  himself  apart  from 
that.  He  may  never  see  them  again  (20  :  25),  as  he 
now  feels.  It  was  a  pathetic  scene  as  he  knelt  on  the 
sea-shore,  prayed,  and  wept  with  these  devoted  min- 
» Cf.  Ramsay,  "  Luke  the  Physician,"  p.  23. 


PAUL  THE  TEACHER  OF  THE  CHURCHES  217 

isters.     They  went  with  him  down  to  the  ship  and  saw 
it  sail  out  of  sight.     Did  they  ever  see  Paul  again  ? 

Luke  hurries  his  narrative  on  by  Cos,  Rhodes,  to 
Patara,  where  a  new  ship  was  found,  one  going  to 
Phoenicia  (21 : 2).  They  come  in  sight  of  Cyprus, 
going  to  the  south  of  it.  Did  not  Paul  think  of  Barna- 
bas, of  Mark,  of  Sergius  Paulus  ?  At  Tyre  they  landed 
and  the  same  warning  came  from  the  Holy  Spirit  about 
his  fate  at  Jerusalem.  Paul  evidently  took  it  all  as 
information,  not  as  prohibition  (Acts  21  : 4).  But 
another  pathetic  parting  occurred  on  the  shore.  There 
was  a  stop  at  Ptolemais,  and  now  they  come  to  Caesarea, 
the  port  for  Jerusalem.  Here  Paul  meets  Philip  the 
evangelist  (21 : 8),  the  former  deacon  (Acts  6)  and 
friend  of  Stephen.  Like  Stephen,  he  had  become  a 
powerful  preacher  (Acts  8).  His  four  virgin  daughters 
have  the  gift  of  prophecy.  One  can  but  wonder  if 
the  subject  of  Stephen  came  up  between  Paul  and 
Philip.  Paul,  as  has  often  been  said,  was  the  real  suc- 
cessor of  Stephen.  But  Agabus,  a  prophet  from  Judea, 
comes  and  gives  Paul  a  most  dramatic  warning  as  to 
the  fate  that  awaited  him  in  Jerusalem  (21  :  11).  This 
was  more  than  enough  both  for  Paul's  party  and  his 
friends  in  Caesarea.  Their  pleading  did  come  near 
breaking  Paul's  heart,  but  did  not  change  his  ad- 
herence to  his  sense  of  duty.  Bonds  and  death  for 
the  name  of  Jesus  had  no  terrors  for  Paul  (21  :  12-14). 
The  brethren  acquiesced  in  the  will  of  the  Lord  when 
they  failed  to  have  their  own  way  (verse  14). 


218  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

This  almost  tragic  narrative  of  Luke  will  enable 
us  to  understand  the  gravity  of  the  situation  at  Jerusalem 
as  Paul  saw  it.  He  was  not  willing  to  go  on  to  Rome 
and  the  west  and  leave  a  cankering  sore  at  Jerusalem 
right  in  the  heart  of  Christendom.  Under  God  he 
had  won  the  east  for  Christ  and  saved  it  from  the 
Judaizers.  He  would  win  the  west.  But,  if  he  left 
the  great  church  at  Jerusalem  practically  at  outs  with 
him,  the  trouble  might  break  out  again  in  Syria, 
Galatia,  Asia,  Macedonia,  Achaia.  And  if  he  should 
be  able  to  hold  his  following  again  there  would  be  a 
schism  in  the  Christian  body.  There  was  already  a 
Judaic  type  of  Christianity  of  a  harmless  sort  rep- 
resented by  James  and  Peter.  In  principle  this  con- 
ception of  Christianity  did  not  differ  from  the  Gentile 
type  represented  by  Paul.  But  the  Judaizers  were 
driving  the  thing  to  the  extreme.  They  were  -  not 
content  for  the  Judaic  type  and  the  Pauline  type  to 
exist  side  by  side.  They  aimed  to  destroy  the  Pauline 
type  and  compel  Peter  and  James  to  come  over  to 
their  view.  If  they  failed  in  this,  the  next  step  would 
be  an  open  split.  They  could  organize  a  denomi- 
nation composed  only  of  loyal  Pharisaic  Christians. 
No  uncircumcised  Gentiles  would  be  admitted.  Paul 
saw  this  peril  as  he  came  toward  Jerusalem.  Once 
the  cloud  was  no  bigger  than  a  man's  hand.  Now  it 
covers  the  face  of  the  heavens.  But  he  will  not  run 
in  the  face  of  danger.  He  is  willing  to  die  if  he  can 
save  the  cause  of  freedom  for  the  Gentile  Christians 


PAUL  THE  TEACHER  OF  THE  CHURCHES  219 

and  overthrow  the  power  of  the  Judaizers  who  have 
intrenched  themselves  in  Jerusalem. 

He  will  then  go  on,  come  what  may.  PauFs  party 
falls  in  with  Mnason,  of  Cyprus,  one  of  the  early 
disciples.  Possibly  he  knew  Paul  at  Antioch  or  during  the 
first  tour  in  Cyprus.  He  has  a  home  in  Jerusalem, 
it  seems,  whither  he  is  now  going  probably  for  the  feast 
of  Pentecost.  Some  of  the  disciples  from  Csesarea 
went  on  also.  So  it  is  a  goodly  company,  but  one  with 
the  shadow  of  a  grave  portent  overhanging  them. 
Perhaps  they  have  something  of  the  courage  of  Thomas 
who  proposed  that  the  disciples  go  to  Jerusalem  with 
Jesus  to  die  with  him  (John  11  :  16).  There  are,  in- 
deed, many  points  of  similarity  between  Paul's  last 
trip  to  Jerusalem  and  the  situation  of  Jesus  as  he  faced 
his  death.  Paul  comes  to  Jerusalem  conscious  of  ap- 
proaching disaster.  Jesus  foresaw  clearly  the  death 
that  was  coming.  Paul  was  largely  in  the  dark  save 
that  he  knew  that  he  was  beset  by  his  enemies  here. 
The  time  that  Paul  was  at  the  conference  here  the 
church  was  on  his  side  in  the  controversy.  How  is  it 
now  ?  How  will  the  believers  receive  him  ?  He  knows 
only  too  well  what  the  Jews  will  do  if  they  get  a  chance. 


CHAPTER  X 
PAUL  AT  BAY 

"  If,  then,  I  am  a  wrong-doer,  and  have  committed  any- 
thing worthy  of  death,  I  refuse  not  to  die;  but  if  none 
of  these  things  is  true  whereof  these  accuse  me,  no 
man  can  give  me  up  imto  them.  I  appeal  unto 
Csesar"  (Acts  25  :  11). 

1.  The  Charge  of  the  Jvdaizers. — Paul  had  come  to 
Jerusalem  to  face  this  charge.  His  fame  had  filled  all 
the  Jewish  world.  Jerusalem  had  long  been  all  agog 
with  it.  The  Jews  thus  hated  him  with  more  intensity 
than  ever  and  indorsed  the  hostile  attacks  made  upon 
him  by  their  brethren  in  various  parts  of  the  world. 
In  the  later  accusations  against  Paul  he  will  be  de- 
scribed as  a  general  disturber  of  the  peace  all  over  the 
world. 

PauFs  reception  by  the  leading  disciples  in  Jerusalem 
was  all  that  he  could  wish.  The  brethren  "  received 
him  gladly,"  and  on  the  next  day  Paul  and  his  com- 
pany paid  a  formal  visit  to  James  and  all  the  elders  who 
had  met  at  the  house  of  James  (Acts  21  :  17  f.).  They 
listened  to  Paul's  story  with  the  same  enthusiasm  that 
they  had  shown  when  he  first  recited  his  account  of 

the  work  during  the  first  missionary  tour.     He  took  his 

220 


PAUL  AT  BAY  221 

time,  for  he  had  much  to  tell,  and  "  rehearsed  one  by 
one  the  things  which  God  had  wrought  through  his 
ministry."  They  "glorified  God"  now  as  before. 
So  far  all  was  well.  Paul  was  assured  of  the  loyalty 
of  James  and  the  elders.  They  had  not  believed  the 
perversions  of  the  Judaizers. 

But  the  elders  felt  obliged  to  tell  Paul  that  Jerusalem 
was  full  of  rumors  about  him,  diligently  circulated  by 
the  Judaizers  (Acts  21 :  21),  to  the  effect  that  Paul  was 
opposed  to  the  observance  of  the  Mosaic  ceremonial 
law  by  the  Jewish  Christians;  in  fact,  that  he  taught  the 
Jews  of  the  Dispersion  to  forsake  Moses  and  the  cus- 
toms of  the  fathers.  It  is  easy  to  see  what  a  serious 
situation  this  new  charge  created.  At  the  time  of  the 
Jerusalem  Conference  Paul  contended  for  freedom  for 
the  Gentile  Christians  from  the  Mosaic  regulations 
and  won  his  point.  No  issue  was  raised  about  the 
Jewish  Christians.  It  was  simply  assumed  that  they 
would  keep  up  the  customs  of  the  fathers. 

It  is  easy  to  see  w^hy  this  new  charge  was  trumped 
up  against  Paul.  They  had  failed  to  carry  their  con- 
tention for  the  bondage  of  the  Gentile  Christians  to 
the  Mosaic  ritual.  Their  resentment  against  Paul 
led  them  to  manufacture  this  charge  in  order  to  ruin 
him.  It  was  this  charge  that  caused  Stephen's  death 
(Acts  6  :  11).  The  charge  against  Stephen  was  false 
and  was  supported  by  hired  witnesses,  as  was  that 
against  Jesus  about  the  destruction  of  the  temple.  In 
reaUty  the  Pharisees  had  opposed  Jesus  mainly  because 


222  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

they  considered  him  hostile  to  their  traditions.  So  Paul 
is  in  the  goodly  succession  of  Jesus  and  Stephen.  In 
all  probability  it  occurred  to  Paul  that  now  at  last  he 
himself  was  to  face  the  very  charge  that  cost  Stephen 
his  Kfe.  That  story  Paul  knew  only  too  well.  In 
Paul's  case,  however,  the  perversion  of  his  position 
came  from  the  Judaizers,  fellow-Christians,  alas! 

The  saddest  part  about  the  matter  was  that  the  charge 
of  the  Judaizers  was  credited  by  the  many  thousands 
among  the  Jews  in  Jerusalem  who  had  believed  (Acts 
21 :  20),  or  at  any  rate  they  were  disposed  to  credit 
it.  It  was  the  old  story  of  readiness  to  believe  evil  of 
a  good  man.  They  probably  argued  that,  as  Paul 
had  gone  so  far  about  the  Gentiles,  it  was  only  a  step 
further  to  make  the  Jews  also  throw  off  the  yoke  of 
Moses. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  state  PauFs  real  position 
about  the  Jewish  Christians  and  the  Mosaic  ceremonial 
law.  He  has  nowhere  said  that  it  was  wrong  for  Jewish 
Christians  to  observe  it.  His  battle  had  been  for  the 
Gentiles  and  had  been  successful.  The  case  with 
the  Jews  was  very  different.  As  Jews  they  felt  the 
insuflBciency  of  the  law  and  became  Christians  in  order 
to  be  saved  as  Peter  had  so  well  said  at  the  Jerusalem 
Conference  (Acts  15  :  10  f.).  Christianity  was  the 
complement  of  Judaism,  not  Judaism  the  complement 
of  Christianity.  Both  Jew  and  Gentile  were  under 
sin  (Rom.  3 :  20)  and  needed  to  be  redeemed  by  the 
grace  of  Christ.    That  done,  there  was  no  need  to 


PAUL  AT  BAY  223 

impose  Greek  philosophy  on  the  Jew  nor  Jewish  law 
on  the  Greek.  It  might,  indeed,  be  needless  for  the 
Jewish  Christian  to  keep  up  the  ceremonial  law. 
Neither  circumcision  nor  uncircumcision  availeth 
anything.  But  it  was  not  wrong  nor  had  Paul  so 
taught. 

2.  The  Plan  for  Answering  the  Charge. — ^The 
brethren  in  Jerusalem  had  evidently  decided  on  what 
to  do  before  Paul  came.  They  put  the  matter  to  him 
gently  (Acts  21  :20).  In  truth,  Paul  is  persona  non 
grata  to  the  saints  as  a  whole  in  Jerusalem.  It  will 
not  be  possible  to  conceal  his  presence  in  town  (21 :  22). 
The  thing  for  Paul  to  do  is  to  be  seen  in  the  temple  offer- 
ing sacrifices  for  himself  and  four  men  who  have  a  vow. 
Thus  "  all  shall  know  that  there  is  no  truth  in  the  things 
whereof  they  have  been  informed  concerning  thee" 
(21 :  24).  Clearly  the  falsehood  of  the  Judaizers  will 
be  completely  answered  and  all  will  see  ''that  thou  thy- 
self also  walkest  orderly,  keeping  the  law."  It  is  plain 
that  James  and  the  elders  are  greatly  troubled  over  the 
situation.     It  is  time  for  action,  not  mere  talk. 

In  itself  the  thing  that  they  ask  Paul  to  do  is  not  at 
all  inconsistent  with  this  general  position.  Indeed, 
he  had  been  anxious  to  come  to  the  Jewish  Pentecost 
which  was  probably  now  going  on.  He  had  urged  the 
Galatians  as  Gentiles  not  to  observe  the  Jewish  feast 
(Gal.  4  :  10),  but  for  the  Jews  such  matters  were 
subjects  for  individual  freedom  (Rom.  14  : 4-8).  At 
Cenchrese  Paul  may  have  completed  a  vow  similar  to 


224  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

the  one  now  upon  these  four  men  (Acts  18  :  18).  He 
had  had  Timothy  circumcised.  Hence  with  apparent 
alacrity  Paul  acquiesced  in  the  proposal  and  on  the 
next  day  purified  himself  with  the  men  and  entered  the 
temple.  An  offering  was  made  for  every  one  of  them, 
and  the  service  was  to  continue  for  seven  days  (21 :  26  f.). 
Paul,  of  course,  did  not  consider  the  sacrifice  as  of  real 
eflBcacy  in  itself,  but  merely  as  part  of  the  shadow  that 
found  its  reahzation  in  the  real  sacrifice  of  Jesus  our 
Passover  (I  Cor.  5:7). 

The  brethren  make  it  plain  to  Paul  that  his  conduct 
is  not  to  be  interpreted  as  a  reversal  of  the  agreement 
made  before  concerning  the  freedom  of  the  Gentiles. 
They  only  wish  that  the  Gentiles  continue  to  respect 
Jewish  prejudices  concerning  things  sacrificed  to  idols, 
blood,  things  strangled,  and  fornication  (21  :  25). 
This  pointed  reference  to  the  Jerusalem  letter  to  the 
Gentile  Christians  is  interesting  since  it  is  alluded  to 
only  once  after  the  return  to  Antioch  (Acts  16  : 4).  Evi- 
dently the  brethren  at  Jerusalem  continue  to  regard  it 
as  still  an  agreement  that  is  binding  in  spite  of  the  con- 
duct of  the  Judaizers.  Paul  himself,  as  we  know  from 
I  Corinthians  and  Romans,  had  gone  into  the  subject 
of  meats  offered  to  idols  more  exhaustively,  though  his 
advice  is  in  accord  with  the  decision  of  the  conference. 

So  far  as  one  could  judge  beforehand,  the  advice  of 
the  brethren  to  Paul  seemed  wise.  He  had  all  to  gain 
and  nothing  to  lose  by  such  a  course.  Suppose  that 
Paul  had  refused  to  do  what  was  asked  of  him.     It 


PAUL  AT  BAY  225 

would  have  been  instantly  construed  as  proof  of  the 
charge  against  him.  To  be  seen  obeying  the  law  as 
a  pious  Jew  in  the  temple  would  do  more  with  the  com- 
mon people  than  any  amount  of  explanation  or  argu- 
ment. 

3.  The  Jews  from  Asia  Upset  the  Plan, — In  all 
probability  the  conduct  of  Paul  did  dispel  the  prejudices 
against  him  in  the  minds  of  the  disciples  at  Jerusalem 
who  had  been  misled  by  the  Judaizers.  The  leaders 
among  the  Judaizers  do  not  themselves  appear  in  the 
present  situation.  So  far  as  is  known  the  Christian  Jews 
of  Jerusalem,  who  noticed  what  he  did,  were  satisfied. 
The  thing  seemed  a  master-stroke  of  wisdom. 

But  Paul  had  enemies  of  many  kinds.  He  had 
labored  in  various  parts  of  the  world  and  had  left 
behind  him  many  rankling  animosities.  The  feast  of 
Pentecost  had  brought  many  Jews  to  Jerusalem  from 
the  Dispersion.  "The  Jews  from  Asia"  here  at  the 
feast  knew  Paul  of  old  in  Ephesus.  They  were  hardened 
against  the  Way  long  ago  (Acts  19 : 9)  and  joined  in 
the  clamor  against  Paul's  friends  in  ,the  theatre  at 
Ephesus  (19;  33).  They  well  knew  the  power  of 
uproar  with  a  mob  as  they  saw  it  on  that  occasion. 
It  so  happened  that  Paul  had  brought  Trophimus, 
one  of  his  Greek  converts  from  Ephesus,  with  him  to 
Jerusalem  as  one  of  the  bearers  of  the  collection.  One 
day  they  saw  Paul  and  Trophimus  walking  together 
in  the  city  (21 :  29).  Another  day  they  saw  Paul  in 
the  temple   (21 :  27).    That  was   enough    for   them. 


226  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

They  "supposed"  that  Paul  had  brought  Trophimus 
into  the  temple  also  as  he  walked  with  him  on  the  street. 
They  felt  that  he  was  none  too  good  to  do  so  anyhow. 
The  definite  charge  that  Paul  brought  Greeks  (Tro- 
phimus has  now  been  multiphed)  into  the  temple 
and  so  defiled  this  holy  place  is  merely  the  local  color- 
ing to  their  previous  hatred  (21 :  28).  The  first  charge 
was  more  general:  "This  is  the  man  that  teacheth  all 
men  everywhere  against  the  people,  and  the  law,  and 
this  place."  They  claimed  to  know  how  he  had  done 
at  Ephesus.  It  was  once  more  the  charge  against 
Stephen  (Acts  6 :  13).  Paul  had  heard  the  cries  of  the 
mob  after  Stephen's  blood  as  he  held  his  garments. 
Now  he  hears  the  yelping  wolves  as  they  gnash  their 
teeth  at  him. 

It  matters  not  that  Paul  at  this  very  moment  was 
engaged  in  an  act  of  worship  in  accordance  with  the 
Mosaic  ritual.  It  was  a  small  consideration  that  Paul 
did  not  have  any  Greeks  with  him  then.  The  Jews 
from  Asia  did  not  say  where  the  Greeks  were  nor  when 
the  act  of  defilement  occurred.  They  had  raised  the 
cry  of  "fire,"  so  to  speak.  Then  they  vanish  out  of 
sight.  It  will  be  probably  five  years  before  Paul  will 
be  set  free  from  the  consequences  of  this  mahcious 
falsehood.  He  had  faced  many  perils  before  this. 
Mobs  had  raged  round  him  at  Lystra,  Thessalonica, 
Bercea,  Corinth,  and  at  Ephesus  he  had  to  fight  with 
veritable  wild  beasts  in  human  form.  But  this  is  a 
Jewish  mob,  a  religious  mob,  a  fanatical  rabble  like 


PAUL  AT  BAY  227 

those  that  clamored  for  the  blood  of  Christ  and  of 
Stephen.  It  is  not  difficult  to  start  a  senseless  mob 
(all  mobs  are  senseless)  after  an  innocent  man.  Only 
touch  a  sensitive  spot  and  the  mischief  is  done.  In 
Ephesus  the  Temple  of  Diana  was  the  cry.  In  Jerusalem 
the  Temple  of  Jehovah.  The  whole  city  was  soon  in 
a  stir.  Paul  was  hterally  dragged  out  of  the  temple 
and  the  doors  shut  to  keep  him  and  his  imaginary 
Greeks  out.  The  next  thing  was  to  kill  him.  Prob- 
ably the  masses  of  them  knew  little  of  Paul  of  late  years 
save  that  they  heard  of  him  as  a  renegade  Jew.  But 
enough  knew  of  his  great  work  for  Christ  to  give  edge 
to  the  movement  against  him. 

The  Roman  power  saves  Paul  from  death.  The 
sight  of  the  Roman  mihtary  tribune  with  soldiers 
stopped  the  murderous  act.  The  mob  left  off  beating 
Paul  (21 :  32).  But  the  captain  thought  that  he  must 
be  a  dreadful  man  to  be  the  victim  of  such  a  mob's 
hate.  He  would  take  no  chances  and  so  bound  Paul 
with  two  chains.  He  got  Uttle  information  from  the 
crowd  as  to  who  he  was  and  what  he  had  done.  Prob- 
ably some  did  not  even  know  who  Paul  was.  Few 
knew  what  the  charge  of  the  Jews  from  Asia  was.  All 
who  had  ever  heard  anything  bad  about  Paul  spoke 
it  out.  The  captain  was  only  puzzled  by  the  uproar. 
The  soldiers  actually  had  to  lift  Paul  upon  the  stairs 
of  the  tower  of  Antonia  from  the  violence  of  the 
crowd.  Paul  heard  them  yell  "Away  with  him"  (21  : 
36).     Jesus  had  heard  that  same  cry  a  generation  ago. 


228  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

The  captain  was  at  his  wits*  end,  like  Pilate  before 
him.  Inside  the  castles,  in  astonishment  that  he  knew 
Greek  (21 :  37  f.),  he  asks  Paul  if  he  is  not  the  dread- 
ful Egyptian  Assassin.  Paul  is  proud  to  claim  his 
Jewish  ancestry  and  his  citizenship  in  Tarsus.  He 
was,  indeed,  a  civilized  man!  That  was  reassuring  to 
the  captain.  But  what  was  the  trouble  all  about? 
The  Jews  were  curious  people  surely. 

4.  Paul's  Defence  to  the  Mob. — ^A  moment  like  this 
calls  for  all  of  one's  resources.  It  was  worth  some- 
thing if  he  could  get  this  hostile  rabble  to  listen  at  all. 
They  had  already  prejudged  his  case.  They  did  not 
wish  to  pause  for  a  speech.  They  longed  for  his  blood. 
Not  even  the  presence  of  the  Roman  soldiery  had  kept 
them  quiet. 

The  captain  gave  Paul  leave  to  speak  with  probably 
much  doubt  as  to  the  outcome.  It  was  one  of  the 
queerest  cases  that  had  ever  come  under  his  care.  It 
was  a  magnificent  spectacle  to  see  Paul  stand  on  the 
stairs  and  lift  up  his  hand  unto  this  people  whom  he 
so  much  loved  (Rom.  9 : 1-5)  and  who  so  hated  him. 
He  spoke  to  the  captain  in  Greek  (Acts  21  :  37),  but 
to  the  Jews  in  Hebrew  (Aramaic,  21 :  40).  That 
very  fact  gave  him  a  better  hearing.  They  would 
probably,  nearly  all  of  them,  have  understood  the 
Greek,  but  there  was  a  greater  silence  when  he  spoke 
in  the  tongue  of  the  people  (20:2).  He  had  won 
that  much.  He  had  their  attention.  He  even  called 
this  rough  crowd  "brethren  and  fathers."    Members 


PAUL  AT  BAY  229 

of  the  Sanhedrin  had  come  into  the  crowd  (22  : 5). 
He  put  himself  en  rapport  with  his  hearers  as  far  as  it 
was  possible.  One  is  reminded  of  a  like  behavior  on 
Paul's  part  on  Mars  Hill. 

Paul  pleaded  for  a  respectful  hearing  on  the  ground 
of  his  Hebrew  birth  and  training  (22 : 3-5).  It  is  a 
familiar  story  to  all  of  them  who  cared  to  know, 
especially  to  the  members  of  the  Sanhedrin  with  whom 
he  had  once  had  such  intimate  relations.  He  had  been 
educated  here  in  the  school  of  GamaUel  and  had  once 
looked  upon  Christ  as  they  still  do.  He  knew  what  it 
was  to  lust  for  blood  with  the  persecutor's  hunger. 
Their  passion  towards  him  he  had  once  shared  towards 
others. 

He  explains  that  his  conversion  was  due  to  the  direct 
intervention  of  God  and  hence  should  command  their 
attention  (22 : 6-16).  It  was  the  last  thing  that  he 
had  ever  expected  to  happen  to  him.  The  change 
in  him  was  of  God's  doing,  and  no  one  should  charge 
him  with  being  a  turncoat  or  renegade  Jew.  The  de- 
tails that  Paul  gives  all  prove  that  his  conversion  was 
due  to  the  direct  interposition  of  Jesus  himself.  Could 
any  one  blame  him  for  surrendering  to  Jesus,  then? 
Would  they  have  done  differently? 

This  is  not  the  first  time  that  he  has  told  his  story  in 
Jerusalem  (22 :  17-21).  When  his  preaching,  a  long 
time  ago,  met  with  opposition  in  Jerusalem,  Jesus  told 
him  in  a  trance  to  get  out  of  Jerusalem  quickly  because 
the  Jews  would  not  hear  his  testimony.     He  had  that 


230  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

trance  as  he  prayed  in  this  very  temple  where  he  was 
just  now  worshipping.  He  had  reminded  the  Lord 
Jesus  that  all  people  in  Jerusalem  would  know  that  his 
change  was  sincere  since  he  had  been  so  pubHc  in  his 
opposition  to  Stephen  and  the  rest.  But  even  so  the 
Lord  Jesus  bade  him  depart  for  there  was  no  work  for 
him  in  Jerusalem.  As  it  was  then,  so  it  clearly  is 
now.  He  did  not  choose  to  go  to  the  Gentiles  of  his 
own  accord.  He  would  have  been  glad  to  have  preached 
at  Jerusalem  if  that  were  possible.  It  was  the  Lord's 
will  that  he  go  to  the  Gentiles. 

Paul  probably  had  much  more  to  say,  as  at  Athens. 
He  had  laid  the  foundations  for  a  skilful  apologetic 
for  his  ministry  to  the  Gentiles,  and  he  could  now  put 
in  its  true  light  exactly  what  he  had  preached  to  the 
Gentiles,  why  he  had  come  to  Jerusalem,  what  he  was 
doing  in  the  temple  at  the  very  moment  when  the 
Jews  from  Asia  started  the  hue  and  cry  about  him. 
But  the  mob  would  have  none  of  it.  Paul  had  used 
one  word  too  many,  the  word  "Gentiles"  (22:  21  f.). 
The  charge  against  him  had  been  that  he  had  brought 
Greeks  into  the  temple.  They  instantly  react  to  that 
and  all  of  Paul's  fine  diplomacy  has  come  to  naught. 
A  mob  is  fickle  at  best  or  worst.  The  psychology  of  a 
crowd,  the  mob  mind,  is  a  curious  reaHty.  The  ex- 
citement once  started  again  was  more  virulent  than 
ever.     Garments,  dust,  yells,  all  filled  the  air. 

The  poor  captain  was  now  sorry  that  he  had  let 
Paul  speak.    The  speech  had  been  in  Aramaic  and  he 


PAUL  AT  BAY  231 

had  probably  not  understood  a  word  of  it.  As  a  result, 
he  is  more  mystified  than  ever.  But  he  is  now  out  of 
patience  also.  If  no  one  can  tell  him  what  all  this 
business  means,  he  will  examine  Paul  by  scourging, 
that  he  may  know  **for  what  cause  they  so  shouted 
against  him"  (22:24).  He  is  tired  of  being  in  the 
dark.  Luke  gives  much  detail.  When  Paul  was  tied 
with  thongs,  he  dropped  a  remark  that  positively 
frightened  the  centurion.  It  was  unlawful  to  scourge 
a  Roman  at  all.  It  was  unlawful  to  scourge  anybody 
uncondemned.  It  was  a  narrow  escape,  and  the  chief 
captain  eagerly  asked  if  Paul  was  really  a  Roman 
(22 :  27  f.).  Paul  was  proud  to  say:  "I  am  a  Roman 
born."  It  was  the  one  magic  word  in  all  the  world. 
The  examination  was  postponed  indefinitely.  He 
had  been  too  rash  with  Paul  and  had  bound  him  severely 
for  scourging.  One  need  not  wonder  that  Paul  here 
appealed  to  his  rights  as  a  Roman  citizen.  It  was  plain 
that  he  could  not  get  justice  from  the  Jewish  mob  nor 
even  from  the  Roman  officials  without  doing  so. 
But  instantly  a  new  turn  comes  to  the  affairs  of  Paul. 
The  Roman  captain  sees  that  Paul  cannot  be  mistreated 
bodily,  nor  must  any  official  irregularities  be  allowed. 
The  forms  of  legal  usage  must  be  observed  else  he  will 
have  to  answer  for  his  failure. 

5.  Paid  before  the  Sanhedrin. — ^The  chief  captain 
had  failed  utterly  to  unravel  this  Jewish  snarl.  He 
did  not  have  the  wit  nor  the  courage  of  Gallio  to  cut 
the  Gordian  knot  of  thin  peccadillos  and   punctilios. 


232  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

Besides,  though  Paul  was  a  Roman  citizen,  his  offence 
seemed  to  concern  the  Jews  somehow.  So  he  called 
a  meeting  of  the  Sanhedrin  to  clear  up  the  matter  for 
him.  Surely  Paul  was  guilty  of  something  or  other. 
These  grave  judges  could  determine  what  his  crime 
was. 

It  is  a  famihar  experience  for  Paul  to  meet  with  this 
body  of  distinguished  Jewish  oflBcials.  If  he  had  not 
been  a  member  himself,  which  was  entirely  possible, 
he,  at  any  rate,  had  been  the  official  agent  of  the  body 
and  had  often  had  conferences  with  them.  Many  of 
them  were  known  to  him  by  face.  But  it  was  a  new 
experience  for  him  to  be  on  trial  before  the  Sanhedrin. 
Here  again  he  was  following  in  the  footsteps  of  Stephen. 

But  Paul  has  a  very  brief  word  to  add  to  what  he  had 
said  on  the  steps  of  the  tower  the  day  before :  "  Brethren, 
I  have  lived  before  God  in  all  good  conscience  until 
this  day"  (Acts  23  : 1).  It  was  a  simple  enough  thing 
to  say;  it  contradicted  all  the  charges  made  by  the  mob 
against  Paul  and  evidently  indorsed  by  the  Sanhedrin. 
They  had  long  wished  to  have  him  in  their  power, 
and  now  by  a  turn  in  the  wheel  of  fortune  that  time  had 
come.  It  was  an  insult  to  the  body  for  Paul  to  assert 
that  all  he  had  done  against  Judaism,  as  they  conceived 
it,  was  done  in  good  conscience.  If  anything,  it  only 
made  the  matter  worse. 

This  point  of  view  explains  the  conduct  of  the  high 
priest  who  so  hotly  resented  PauFs  brief  defence.  It 
also  throws  light  on  Paul's  indignant  response  to  the 


PAUL  AT  BAY  233 

high  priest's  command.  It  is  not  merely  to  be  noted 
that  Paul  did  not  turn  the  other  cheek.  Jesus  did  not 
do  that,  but  firmly  protested  against  such  treatment. 
What  is  more  noticeable  is  that  Paul  pronounced  a 
bitter  curse  on  the  high  priest,  caUing  him  a  "whited 
wall,"  a  vivid  way  of  terming  him  a  hypocrite  (23 : 3). 
A  good  many  explanations  have  been  offered  for  Paul's 
remark  that  he  did  not  know  that  it  was  the  high  priest 
(23 : 5) :  such  as  his  weak  eyes,  the  change  of  dress  in 
the  high  priest,  etc.  It  seems  to  me  that  the  most  natu- 
ral view  is  that  Paul  was  so  angry  that  he  was  not  at 
the  moment  considering  the  fact  that  it  was  the  high 
priest  to  whom  he  was  speaking.  His  denunciation  of 
the  high  priest  was  a  sudden  explosion,  not  a  deliberate 
reviUng. 

But  clearly  Paul's  outburst  had  not  helped  his  chances 
for  acquittal  by  the  Sanhedrin  or  recommendation  to 
the  captain  for  release.  It  was  plain  that  the  body  as 
a  whole  was  already  hostile  to  him. 

Paul's  perception  (23 : 6)  that  one  part  were  Sad- 
ducees  and  the  other  Pharisees  was,  of  course,  nothing 
new  to  him.  It  was  merely  that  he  then  saw  how  he 
could  turn  that  fact  to  his  advantage.  These  two 
sects  were  still  bitterlv  hostile  on  many  points.  Paul 
knew  all  about  their  controversies.  One  may  here  re- 
call how  Gamaliel  had  declined  to  help  the  Sadducees 
persecute  the  Apostles  on  the  issue  of  the  resurrection 
of  Jesus  from  the  dead.  On  that  issue  alone,  apart 
from  the  claims  of  Jesus  to  be  the  Messiah,  the  Pharisees 


234  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

had  no  fight  with  Christianity.  Paul  probably  knew 
all  about  the  conduct  of  Gamaliel  on  that  occasion. 
On  this  point,  as  opposed  to  the  Sadducees,  he  was  still 
a  Pharisee  (23 : 6).  It  was  also  true  that  at  bottom 
the  charge  against  him  involved  the  question  of  the 
resurrection  of  the  dead  in  the  case  of  Jesus.  That 
was  the  point  that  turned  the  scales  with  him  when  he 
became  a  Christian  as  he  had  explained  to  the  mob  on 
yesterday.  He  brushed  aside  the  superficial  charges 
made  by  the  Asian  Jews  yesterday  and  which  nobody 
remembered  clearly  enough  to  tell  the  chief  captain. 
Those  charges  had  not  come  before  the  Sanhedrin. 
As  a  matter  of  fact  Paul  felt  himself  to  be  on  trial  for 
his  whole  Christian  career,  not  for  any  special  act  in 
that  career.  Hence  he  was  entirely  justified  in  his 
statement  of  the  case.  He  had  not  said  all  that  was 
true  of  himself.  He  did  not,  of  course,  mean  that  he 
was  merely  a  Pharisee.  They  knew  full  well  that  he 
was  also  a  Christian.  What  he  means  for  the  Sanhedrin 
to  understand  is  that,  although  a  Christian,  as  he  had 
explained  on  yesterday,  he  was  still  a  Pharisee  on  the  es- 
sential doctrine  of  the  resurrection,  and  that  this 
doctrine  was  really  at  stake  in  the  case  against  him. 

A  great  deal  depends  on  the  way  a  thing  is  put. 
Paul  had  purposely  and  shrewdly  stated  the  matter 
so  as  to  array  the  two  parties  against  each  other. 
Surely  no  one  can  fairly  say  that  Paul  had  no  right  to 
save  his  own  life  by  a  skilful  manoeuvre  Hke  this. 
What  he  did  was  in  no  sense  immoral.     He  divided 


PAUL  AT  BAY  235 

to  conquer  as  any  able  general  will  do.  It  was  war 
in  which  Paul  was  now  engaged.  He  was  in  the  hands 
of  men  who  were  bent  on  his  ruin.  He  told  no  untruth 
nor  acted  one.  Yet  he  so  completely  outgeneraled  his 
enemies  that  the  grave  and  dignified  judges  lost  control 
of  themselves  in  a  theological  scramble  and  lost  all 
sight  of  Paul  (23  :  9  f.).  This  incident  throws  a 
curious  sidelight  on  the  intensity  of  the  feeling  between 
the  two  great  Jewish  parties  since  they  could  not  con- 
trol themselves  when  in  court.  Probably  such  dis- 
cussions were  common,  as  Paul  knew.  The  jury  was 
now  hopelessly  hung.  In  the  heat  of  debate  the 
Pharisees  had  actually  become  the  champions  of  Paul 
and  openly  proclaimed  his  innocence,  while  the  Sad- 
ducees  as  stoutly  maintained  his  guilt  (23  :  9  f.).  The 
division  among  the  judges  was  strictly  according  to 
party  lines  as  is  often  the  case  to-day  when  a  number 
of  judges  act  on  a  partisan  issue. 

Indeed,  so  fierce  had  become  the  furor  between  the 
two  parties  that  the  chief  captain  actually  had  to 
rescue  Paul  by  force  to  keep  him  from  being  torn  to 
pieces  in  their  attacks  on  each  other.  He  was  safe  in 
the  castle  from  the  Sanhedrin  as  yesterday  when  he 
had  been  rescued  from  the  mob.  Still  the  mystery  re- 
mained to  the  chief  captain.  What  was  the  matter 
with  Paul?  What  had  he  done?  The  Sanhedrin 
had  behaved  as  badly  as  the  mob. 

Ramsay^  discusses  at  some  length  why  Luke  has 
»  "St.  Paul  the  Traveller,"  p.  307  f. 


236  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

gone  into  the  series  of  trials  at  Jerusalem  and  Caesarea 
in  such  detail.  It  is  due,  he  thinks,  to  Luke's  idea  that 
this  experience  in  Paul's  life  marked  an  epoch  in  the 
history  of  early  Christianity.  He  thinks  that  some 
light  may  be  thrown  on  the  matter  by  reason  of  the 
fact  that  this  contact  with  Roman  provincial  and  finally 
imperial  law  set  an  example  or  precedent  for  Christians 
afterward.  He  is  sure  that  Luke  contemplated  a 
third  book  to  take  up  Paul's  career  after  his  acquittal. 
That  may  be  true,  but  one  cannot  prove  it  from  Luke's 
use  of  "first"  (Trpwrov,  Acts  1  : 1),  a  usage  common 
in  the  Koine  vernacular,^  as  in  modern  EngHsh,  where 
only  two  subjects  are  under  consideration.  One  may 
add  that,  after  all,  the  space  given  by  Luke  to  this  period 
of  five  years  when  he  was  with  Paul  is  not  greatly  out 
of  proportion  to  the  space  devoted  in  Acts  to  the  five 
years  before.  This  close  grapple  with  the  Jewish 
people,  the  Sanhedrin,  Roman  provincial  governors 
and  finally  the  Emperor  himself  did  vitally  concern 
not  only  Paul's  own  career,  but  the  development  and 
progress  of  Christianity  unhindered  by  Jew  and  Roman. 
Heretofore  the  Roman,  save  at  Philippi  under  a  mis- 
apprehension, had  not  been  really  hostile.  But  now 
at  last  Paul  has  to  get  a  better  adjustment  with  Roman 
law  than  the  temporary  permission  resulting  from 
Gallio's  indulgence.  The  matter,  of  course,  was 
pressed  against  Paul  on  the  ground  of  his  personal 
shortcomings,  not  that  of  Christianity  per  se.  But, 
*Moultoii,  "Prolegomena  to  N.  T.  Greek  Grammar,"  p.  79. 


PAUL  AT  BAY  237 

as  a  matter  of  fact,  it  was  the  great  success  of  Paul  that 
had  concentrated  Jewish  hate  on  him. 

Paul  had  never  needed  the  help  of  Jesus  more  than 
now.  James  and  the  elders  were  not  very  prominent 
just  now.  We  know  very  well  where  their  sympathies 
were.  But  their  advice  had  all  turned  out  wrong 
somehow.  It  was  vain  to  give  mere  advice,  and  they 
had  naught  else  but  prayer.  Paul's  Hfe  had  been  saved 
twice,  once  from  the  mob,  once  from  the  Sanhedrin. 
No  hope  lay  in  further  appeal  in  either  direction.  The 
Roman  captain  seemed  kindly,  in  a  way,  but  he  was 
afraid  to  be  too  friendly  to  Paul  for  fear  the  Jews 
would  complain  to  Felix,  the  Governor  at  Csesarea. 
The  road  began  to  seem  long  to  Paul.  That  night 
Jesus  stood  by  him  as  he  had  appeared  to  him  once 
before  in  Jerusalem  when  the  Jews  were  hostile  to 
him.  Then  Jesus  bade  him  leave  Jerusalem  for  work 
among  the  Gentiles.  Then  he  fled  to  escape  trouble. 
Now  he  cannot  escape.  He  is  caught  in  the  toils. 
His  enemies  howl  about  him  on  every  side.  But 
Jesus  has  a  cheering  word  even  now  (23: 11).  It  is 
that  after  all  he  shall  go  to  Rome.  He  will  not  then 
die  at  once.  His  Hfe  will  be  spared,  but  Jesus  had  no 
word  about  freedom.  He  will  testify  in  Rome  as  in 
Jerusalem.  At  Jerusalem  his  testimony  had  borne 
little  fruit  save  a  harvest  of  trouble.  What  has  Rome 
in  store  for  him  ? 

6.  PavTs  Rescue  from  the  Conspirators.— Paul  needed 
the  comfort  of  this  reassurance  on  that  very  day,  for 


238  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

at  dawn  the  Jews  banded  together  under  a  curse 
neither  to  eat  nor  drink  till  they  had  killed  Paul 
(Acts  23:12).  The  riot  had  failed,  the  Sanhedrin 
had  failed,  the  Roman  captain  was  uncertain.  A  plot 
was  the  only  sure  thing.  One  recalls  the  plot  against 
Paul  by  the  Jews  of  Corinth  on  his  departure. 

It  was  a  formidable  conspiracy  of  forty  Jewish  zealots. 
It  was  essential  to  the  plan  to  tell  the  Sanhedrin  and 
let  them  be  partners  in  the  crime.  The  Sanhedrin 
had  a  technical  ground  on  which  to  request  another 
hearing  of  Paul's  case,  since  the  matter  had  not  come 
to  a  clear  issue  before  and  the  captain  had  himself 
taken  Paul  from  them.  The  Sanhedrin  could  easily 
use  this  pretext,  "as  though  ye  would  judge  of  his  case 
more  exactly"  (23:15).  They  were  brutally  told 
the  whole  plot:  "And  we,  before  he  comes  near,  are 
ready  to  slay  him."  Luke  plainly  implies  that  the 
Sanhedrin  agreed  to  this  murderous  plot,  and  they 
were  the  ecclesiastical  lights  of  Judaism. 

But  Jesus  had  not  deserted  Paul.  "Paul's  sister's 
son  heard  of  their  lying  in  wait."  You  can  count  on 
a  boy  to  learn  what  is  on  foot.  So  many  people  knew 
the  scheme  that  some  were  overheard  talking  of  it. 
This  boy  was  worthy  of  his  uncle  and  went  and  told 
Paul.  The  rest  was  easily  managed.  Soon  the  boy 
goes  with  a  centurion  to  the  chief  captain.  Note  the 
centurion's  point  of  view  about  "Paul  the  prisoner" 
(23:18),  just  one  of  the  many  prisoners  on  hand  I 
He  little  knew  that  he  was  dealing  with  the  greatest 


PAUL  AT  BAY  239 

man  alive  at  that  time,  one  of  the  greatest  of  all  time. 
The  chief  captain  was  a  man  of  skill.  He  took  the 
boy  aside  and  held  his  hand  as  he  told  his  story.  He 
told  it  simply  and  begged  the  chief  captain  not  to  let 
Paul  fall  into  the  trap  set  for  him. 

Put  it  to  the  credit  of  Claudius  Lysias  that  he  had 
courage  enough  to  thwart  this  plot.  He  naturally  en- 
joined silence  on  the  boy,  and  sped  Paul  out  of  Jerusalem 
at  nine  o'clock  that  night  (the  third  hour)  under  the 
protection  of  four  hundred  and  seventy  soldiers.  Paul 
was  a  Roman  citizen  and  Lysias  was  determined  that  he 
should  not  be  murdered.  This  desire  explains  the  size 
of  the  guard  and  the  three  kinds  of  soldiers  sent  (legion- 
ary soldiers,  horsemen,  and  spearmen).  In  order  to 
guarantee  speed,  "beasts"  were  provided  for  Paul. 
Lysias  was  doubtless  glad  of  a  way  out  of  a  troublesome 
situation.  He  was  perfectly  willing  to  pass  Paul  on  to 
Felix,  with  his  compliments,  just  as  Pilate  had  tried  to  get 
Herod  Antipas  to  decide  the  case  of  Jesus.  His  letter 
was  therefore  very  courteous.  He  now,  for  the  first  time, 
betrays  some  knowledge  of  the  charges  against  Paul. 
They  were  merely  "questions  of  their  law"  (23:29) 
He  even  expressed  the  opinion,  as  Pilate  did  about 
Jesus,  that  he  had  "nothing  laid  to  his  charge  worthy 
of  death."  But  all  the  same  he  made  no  recommenda- 
tion in  the  case,  though  he  implied  that  he  ought  to  be 
set  free.  He  explains  that  he  had  already  brought  him 
before  the  Jewish  Council  to  learn  what  the  charges 
were  about.    He  did  not  get  any  definite  information, 


240  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

but  only  that  they  disagreed  among  themselves  about 
Paul.  So  he  has  sent  Paul  the  prisoner  down  to 
Csesarea  with  the  charge  to  his  accusers  to  come  before 
Felix  also.  This  he  did  because  of  a  plot.  Thus  far  the 
letter  is  in  accord  with  Luke's  story  of  the  facts.  But 
he  puts  too  favorable  a  color  on  his  arrest  of  Paul. 
He  had,  indeed,  rescued  Paul  from  the  mob,  but  not 
until  he  learned  that  he  was  a  Roman!  He  thus 
covers  up  his  peril  of  scourging  a  Roman  citizen,  and 
turns  his  conduct  into  a  defence  of  the  rights  of  the 
Roman  citizen.  He  is  now  rid  of  Paul  and  has  cleared 
his  skirts  of  any  possible  harm  from  the  case. 

The  soldiers  only  accompanied  Paul  as  far  as  Anti- 
patris,  but  the  seventy  horsemen,  after  a  night's  rest 
there,  went  on  with  him  to  Csesarea.  Lysias  had  told 
Paul's  accusers,  it  seems  (23 :  30),  that  he  would  be 
sent  to  Csesarea,  but  evidently  had  not  revealed  his 
plan  for  doing  so.  Hence  he  succeeded  in  delivering 
Paul  to  Felix  with  the  letter.  The  usual  Roman 
procedure  is  manifest  in  the  question  of  Felix  about 
Paul's  province  (Cilicia).  It  was  only  proper  for  him 
to  wait  till  the  accusers  came,  and  he  was  kept  in 
Herod's  palace  (prsetorium)  in  Csesarea.  Felix  prom- 
ised Paul  a  full  investigation. 

7.  Paid  before  Felix. — As  explained  in  a  previous 
chapter,  one  could  wish  that  he  knew  exactly  the  date 
of  Felix's  recall.  It  was  after  he  had  kept  Paul  two 
years  (Acts  24 :  27).  The  matter  cannot  be  discussed 
here.     It  may  be  assumed  to  be  either  60  or  59  A.D. 


PAUL  AT  BAY  241 

Hence  Paul  appears  before  Felix  first  in  the  spring  of 
58  or  57.  Felix  was  a  representative  of  the  worst  type 
of  Roman  provincial  governor.  He  is  a  fit  successor 
of  Pilate,  a  man  guilty  of  every  vice.  Tacitus^  bluntly 
said  of  him  that  "in  the  practice  of  every  kind  of  lust 
and  cruelty  he  exercised  the  power  of  a  Idng  with  the 
temper  of  a  slave."  How  much  Paul  knew  of  Fehx 
we  do  not  know.  But  the  Jewish  rulers  knew  his 
vulnerable  points  as  they  did  about  Pilate  and  will  not 
hesitate  to  make  charges  to  the  Emperor  about  Felix 
as  they  threatened  to  Pilate  to  do.  Felix  is  open  to  all 
that  is  worst  in  Roman  provincial  administration — 
to  graft,  bribery,  indifference,  selfish  advantage.  It 
is  not  a  hopeful  outlook  for  Paul.  Relentless  Jewish 
hatred  will  press  the  case  against  him  before  a  governor 
who  has  no  scruples  about  abstract  justice  nor  particular 
interest  in  a  troublesome  Jewish  rabbi  who  happens  to 
have  also  Roman  citizenship. 

The  case  of  the  Sanhedrin  is  ably  presented.  The 
high  priest  Ananias  took  five  days  to  get  the  charges 
against  Paul  properly  prepared.  He  comes  with 
"certain  elders,  and  with  an  orator,  one  Tertullus" 
(24  : 1).  They  seem  to  have  laid  their  side  before 
Felix  before  the  trial.  Tertullus  has  a  Roman  name 
and  is  clearly  a  Roman  lawyer  who  knows  how  to  plead 
before  a  governor  like  Felix  from  the  point  of  view  of 
Roman  provincial  law.     His  speech  could  have  been 

*  Hist.,  V.  9.  Cf.  Conybeare  and  Howson,  Scribner's  ed., 
Vol.  II,  p.  275. 


242  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

in  Latin,  but  was  probably  in  Greek  since  it  was  as- 
sented to  by  the  Jews  (24 : 9).  He  was  an  adept  in 
flattery  and  adroitness.  He  actually  praises  Felix 
as  a  reformer!  He  fawns  before  the  corrupt  Gov- 
ernor to  carry  his  point.  His  smooth  sentences  roll 
along  till  he  comes  to  Paul,  whom  he  damns  by  a 
phrase — "this  pestilent  fellow."  Paul  the  prisoner  is 
now  Paul  the  pest,  a  common  nuisance!  He  repeats 
as  a  fact  the  supposition  of  the  Jews  from  Asia  in  the 
temple  that  he  had  "assayed  to  profane  the  temple" 
(24  : 6).  But  the  keen  Roman  lawyer  has  added 
two  other  points  to  get  a  case  that  will  stand  in  Roman 
law.  He  charges  Paul  with  being  "a  mover  of  insur- 
rections among  all  the  Jews  throughout  the  world," 
a  rather  vague  charge,  and  yet  one  for  which  they  could 
get  a  specious  form  of  proof  from  what  had  occurred 
in  Antioch,  Iconium,  Thessalonica,  Corinth,  Ephesus. 
He  would  know  how  to  twist  the  facts  like  an  un- 
scrupulous pleader.  The  other  charge  is  that  of  heresy, 
and  consists  in  his  being  "a  ringleader  of  the  sect  of 
the  Nazarenes."  Here  it  is  assumed  that  this  new  sect 
is  different  from  Judaism,  is,  in  fact,  a  religio  nova  et 
illicita,  and  has  no  standing  in  Roman  law.  Hence 
to  be  a  ringleader  in  this  unlawful  sect  was  itself  a 
crime.  The  decision  of  Gallio  in  Achaia,  of  course, 
had  no  weight  in  Palestine.  Eventually  the  matter 
must  be  passed  on  by  the  Emperor  himself.  Was  it  a 
crime  to  be  a  Christian  if  Christianity  was  different 
from   Judaism?    Technically,   Tertullus    had    scored 


PAUL  AT  BAY  243 

a  legal  point  against  Paul  and  had  thrown  suspicion 
on  him  by  the  other  two  charges.  One  charge  was 
true,  for  he  was  a  Nazarene  (note  the  term).  Another 
charge  was  true  only  in  a  perverted  sense,  for  the  dis- 
turbances were  raised  against  Paul;  he  did  not  cause 
them  himself.  The  other  and  the  original  one  was 
flatly  untrue;  he  had  not  profaned  the  temple  nor 
tried  to  do  so.  This,  then,  is  the  line  of  attack  of 
Paul's  Jewish  enemies. 

He  had  escaped  the  mob,  the  Sanhedrin,  the  con- 
spiracy. What  will  be  his  fate  before  Roman  law? 
The  provincial  courts  were  proverbially  slow  and  the 
governors  willing  to  use  prisoners  for  private  gain. 
Paul  has  no  advocate  to  plead  his  cause.  He  has  no 
witnesses  to  substantiate  his  statements.  He  is  in 
much  the  same  position  as  Jesus  before  Pilate.  What 
can  he  say  that  will  make  a  legal  defence  against  the 
legal  quibbles  of  Tertullus  ?  Paul  is  courteous,  but  no 
fawning  sycophant.  He  says  all  that  he  can  consis- 
tently with  truth  in  praise  of  Fehx,  which  is  very  little 
(24  :  10).  One  thing  is  plain,  Felix  can  learn  the  facts, 
if  he  wishes  to  do  so  (24  :  11),  about  the  charge  of 
defiUng  the  temple.  Witnesses  could  be  gotten  to 
prove  Paul's  conduct  since  he  arrived  in  Palestine 
twelve  days  ago.  The  charge  of  insurrection  is  equally 
groundless  and  cannot  be  proved.  But  he  will  not 
deny  being  a  Nazarene,  a  term  which  he  does  not  use 
(recall  Nathanael's  slur  against  Nazareth).  He  fol- 
lows the  Way  which  the  Jews  call  a  sect,  a  departure 


244  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

from  Judaism,  but  which  he  considers  the  real  fruition 
of  the  true  Judaism  of  the  law  and  the  Prophets.  The 
Prophets,  like  Paul,  hoped  for  a  resurrection  of  both 
just  and  unjust.  He  has  walked  in  this  Way  with  good 
conscience  toward  God  and  men  and  done  his  duty. 
In  reality,  therefore,  Paul  has  found  a  legal  shelter 
for  Christianity  in  the  Roman  indulgence  of  Judaism. 
So  far  from  profaning  the  temple  recently,  he  was  at 
the  very  moment  of  the  mob's  attack  engaged  in  the 
act  of  purifying  himself  in  the  temple  "with  no  crowd, 
nor  yet  with  tumult"  (24  :  18).  Indeed,  he  had  come 
to  the  city  to  bring  alms  to  his  own  people.  The  trouble 
in  Jerusalem  all  arose  from  some  Jews  from  Asia,  who 
are  not  here  as  they  ought  to  be.  Let  these  members 
of  the  Sanhedrin  tell  what  charge  they  found  against 
me  when  I  stood  before  them  except  it  be  the  doctrine 
of  the  resurrection  which  all  Pharisees  hold. 

It  was  a  masterly  defence  and  completely  disposed 
of  the  charge  of  profaning  the  temple,  and  put  the 
Jews  on  the  defensive  about  the  charge  of  insurrection. 
The  only  point  left  was  the  legal  standing  of  Chris- 
tianity, the  doctrine  which  Paul  confessed,  but  which 
he  claimed  to  be  the  true  Judaism  which  Roman  law 
allowed.  FeHx  reserved  the  right  to  pass  judgment 
on  this  point  till  he  could  learn  more  about  the  tenets 
of  "the  Way"  and  see  what  Lysias  had  to  say  about 
Paul's  statement  of  the  recent  facts.  Meanwhile, 
Paul  was  to  have  indulgence  and  to  see  his  friends. 
Luke,  we  know,  was  with  him  in  Caesarea  at  the  close 


PAUL  AT  BAY  245 

of  his  story  (27  : 1)  and  was  probably  there  most  of  the 
two  years.  So  far  Felix  had  acted  circumspectly  with 
Paul. 

It  seems  that  FeKx  did  not  wait  long  to  hear  more 
exactly  from  Paul  "concerning  the  faith  in  Christ 
Jesus"  (24:24).  It  was  on  this  point  that  Felix 
claimed  to  have  most  trouble,  since  Paul  had  confessed 
his  guilt,  if  crime  it  was  in  Roman  law.  One  would 
suppose  that  Paul  would  be  disposed  to  give  a  presenta- 
tion of  Christianity  that  would  give  it,  if  possible,  a 
legal  standing.  But  Paul  shows  complete  indifference 
to  that  phase  of  the  subject  beyond  what  he  had  al- 
ready said.  If  Roman  jurisprudence  branded  that  a 
crime,  let  it  be  done.  Indeed,  Paul  seems  on  this  oc- 
casion to  forget  that  he  is  a  prisoner.  He  preaches 
a  sermon  that  exposed  the  sinfulness  of  Felix  and  the 
infamous  Drusilla  instead  of  giving  an  abstract  dis- 
cussion about  the  relation  between  Christianity  and 
Roman  provincial  law.  The  power  of  the  sermon 
was  shown  in  the  terror  of  FeHx  (24 :  25).  But  a 
vicious  demagogue  like  Felix  was  not  to  be  won  by 
one  sermon.  He  had  a  conflict  of  emotions.  He 
loved  money  and  hoped  to  get  a  bribe  from  Paul  for 
his  freedom  and  the  legal  standing  of  Christianity. 
His  love  of  gold  led  him  to  frequent  communion  with 
Paul  (24 :  26).  One  may  wonder  how  he  expected 
to  get  money  out  of  Paul.  Probably  Luke  and  others 
of  Paul's  friends  had  come.  He  had  spoken  of  taking 
alms  up  to  Jerusalem.    Paul's  standing  as  a  Roman 


246  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

citizen  of  Tarsus  showed  that  he  was  not  a  pauper. 
Ramsay*  thinks  that  Paul  was  now  able  to  draw  on 
his  father's  fortune  for  the  expenses  of  his  trial.  He 
does  not  mean  that  Paul  bribed  Felix.  Far  from  it. 
The  very  fact  that  he  left  Paul  bound  for  two  years 
proves  that  he  received  no  money  from  him.  But  the 
long-drawn-out  trial  would  require  a  deal  of  money 
in  many  ways  that  were  legitimate,  especially  in  the 
matter  of  the  appeal  to  Caesar  which  came  later. 

When  Felix  failed  to  get  money  from  Paul,  he  lost 
interest  also  in  the  legal  status  of  Christianity.  He 
was  unable  to  restrain  uprisings  in  Palestine,  indeed 
in  Caesarea  itself.  On  his  recall  for  failure  to  manage 
the  affairs  of  his  province,  he  left  Paul  in  prison  as  a 
sop  to  Jewish  hatred,  hoping  to  lessen  their  charges 
against  him  in  Rome.  It  is  some  comfort  to  reflect 
that  Pilate  and  Felix  gained  nothing  by  their  paltering 
servility  to  the  Jews  against  innocent  men.  Felix 
knew  perfectly  well  that  Paul  was  innocent  of  any  crime 
against  Roman  law  as  Lysias  had  written  him.  He 
knew  already  enough  about  Christianity  to  know  that 
it  was  no  crime  for  a  Jew  to  be  a  Christian,  if  we  take 
the  language  Hterally  (Acts  24  :  22). 

8.  Paul  before  Festus. — One  may  well  imagine  that 
Paul  shed  no  tears  over  the  departure  of  Felix.  Two 
years  he  had  let  an  innocent  man  remain  a  prisoner. 
Festus  might  be  better.  He  does,  indeed,  bear  a  some- 
what better  reputation.  Some  of  the  books  are  dis- 
^  "St.  Paul  the  Traveller,"  pp.  310  fif 


PAUL  AT  BAY  247 

posed  to  credit  him  with  candor  and  a  disposition  to 
befriend  Paul.  But  I  am  not  able  to  see  in  his  treat- 
ment of  Paul  anything  more  than  the  perfunctory 
routine  of  the  ordinary  politician  who  seeks  to  curry 
favor  with  the  people  at  the  expense  of  an  innocent 
man,  a  governor  who  aims  to  keep  up  the  show  of 
fairness,  but  who  lacks  the  courage  to  do  the  right 
thing  when  it  is  not  the  popular  thing. 

The  hatred  of  the  Jewish  leaders  against  Paul  has 
not  disappeared  during  these  two  years  (Acts  25  : 2). 
It  is,  in  fact,  the  main  thing  in  their  interview  with  the 
new  Governor  when  he  appears  ceremoniously  in  Jeru- 
salem. They  make  a  specious  request  that  Paul  be 
brought  to  Jerusalem.  But  it  is  to  the  credit  of  Festus 
that  he  was  not  caught  in  this  net  of  Jewish  chicanery. 
They  planned  to  kill  him  on  his  way  to  Jerusalem,  a 
revival  in  another  form  of  the  former  plot  that  vividly 
pictures  the  relentless  wrath  in  Jerusalem  against  Paul. 
They  seemed  to  think  that  if  they  could  only  kill  Paul, 
Christianity  would  disappear.  It  was  Christianity 
that  they  so  despised.  But  Festus  had  vUot  yet  taken 
his  bearings,  and  Paul's  case  was  new  to  him.  He 
was  soon  going  to  Csesarea  anyhow.  They  would 
therefore  come  down  and  make  their  charges  in 
regular  form. 

No  Roman  lawyer  is  mentioned  in  the  presentation 
of  the  "many  and  grievous  charges"  (25  : 7)  against 
Paul.  The  Jews  from  Jerusalem  stood  around  in 
solemn  line  and  made  their  accusations.    The  number 


248  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

seems  to  have  grown  with  the  years.  Perhaps  they 
did  not  present  them  in  clear-cut  legal  form,  but  they 
could  not  prove  them  any  better  than  before. 

Paul's  defence  this  time  is  very  short,  but  very  clear. 
He  denies  sinning  against  the  Jewish  law,  the  Jewish 
temple  or  the  Roman  Caesar  (25  : 8).  He  deserved  to 
be  set  free  at  once.  Nothing  is  here  said  about  the 
crime  of  being  a  Nazarene.  Perhaps  Felix  had  told 
them  that  there  was  nothing  in  that. 

Curiously  enough,  Festus  now  proposes  that  Paul 
agree  to  go  up  to  Jerusalem  to  be  tried  there  be- 
fore him  (25  :  9).  The  suggestion  is  self-explanatory 
and  convicts  Festus  of  hollow  insincerity.  Luke 
pointedly  accuses  him  of  wishing  to  curry  favor  with 
the  Jews.  He  will  later  himself  confess  that  Paul,  in 
his  opinion,  had  done  nothing  worthy  of  death  or  even 
of  bonds  (25 :  25).  He  should  have  set  Paul  free. 
Festus'  later  excuse,  (25  :  18  f.)  that  he  wished  to  take 
him  up  to  Jerusalem  to  clear  up  these  Jewish  ques- 
tions, is  quite  beside  the  mark,  for  the  trial  in  Jerusa- 
lem was  to  be  before  Festus  (25  : 9),  not  before  the 
Sanhedrin.  He  had  found  Paul  a  troublesome  prisoner 
and  recalled  the  suggestion  of  the  Jews  in  Jerusalem 
which  he  had  rejected.  It  was  a  mere  trick  on  the 
part  of  Festus.  In  Jerusalem  he  would  probably  have 
found  some  pretext  to  throw  the  case  over  to  the  Sanhe- 
drin as  Pilate  tried  to  do  with  Jesus.  Festus  is  derelict 
in  his  duty  here  as  was  Felix,  as  was  Pilate. 

Paul  quickly  and  clearly  saw  through  the  whole 


PAUL  AT  BAY  249 

scheme  of  Festus  (25  :  10).  He  was  standing  at  Csesar*s 
judgment  seat  as  a  Roman  citizen.  He  was  not  will- 
ing to  go  back  into  the  jaws  of  death  in  Jerusalem. 
Paul  pointedly  tells  Festus  that  he  himself  knows  his 
innocence  of  any  crime  against  the  Jews,  though  un- 
willing to  decide  according  to  his  knowledge.  He 
has  tried  the  Jews  and  refuses  to  go  back  to  them. 
"  No  man  can  give  me  up  to  them.  I  appeal  to  Caesar." 
These  are  brave  words  and  bold  words.  Were  they  also 
wise  words  ?  It  is  easy  to  retort  that  they  led  to  three 
more  years  of  imprisonment.  But,  if  he  had  gone  to 
Jerusalem,  death  was  his  fate.  If  he  remained  in 
Csesarea,  he  had  the  example  of  Felix  to  go  by,  and 
Festus  was  starting  the  same  dilatory  tactics.  Wis- 
dom was  in  the  Hne  of  Paul's  decision.  Sooner  or 
later  Christianity  must  be  passed  on  by  the  imperial 
government.  Paul  was  a  Roman  citizen  and  had  the 
right  of  appeal.  Ramsay^  argues  that  only  a  serious 
case  would  be  entertained  when  an  appeal  was  demand- 
ed. But,  after  all,  Festus  was  probably  more  than  glad 
to  be  well  rid  of  a  case  that  promised  trouble  for  him 
with  the  Jewish  leaders  with  whom  he  had  to  get  on 
somehow  and  which  had  given  Felix  such  annoyance. 
He  had  conferences  with  the  assessors  (council),  but 
quickly  announced  his  decision  that  Paul  was  to  go 
to  Caesar  (25  :  12).  So  he  was  to  go  to  Rome  after  all. 
9.  Paid  before  Agrippa. — Paul  is  no  more  a  matter 
of  serious  concern  to  Festus  except  on  one  point. 
»  "St.  Paul  the  Traveller,"  p.  310. 


250  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

He  must  present  in  legal  form  the  charge  against  Paul 
and  some  adequate  explanation  of  his  continued  im- 
prisonment. It  is  while  Festus  is  in  this  frame  of  mind 
that  Agrippa  and  Bernice  came  to  Csesarea  by  way  of 
salutation  to  Festus  (Acts  25  :  13).  One  may  imagine 
the  languid  air  of  the  palace  when  the  conversation 
flagged  and  Festus,  for  lack  of  other  topics  and  be- 
cause his  guests  were  Jews,  "laid  Paul's  case  before 
the  King."  He  relates  the  story  (finely  preserved  by 
Luke)  with  the  air  of  nonchalance  and  a  tone  of  superi- 
ority to  Paul  and  Jesus  natural  to  this  Roman  Governor 
of  easy  manners  and  morals.  He  stands  for  his  ad- 
herence to  Roman  usage  in  the  matter  of  the  request 
at  Jerusalem  (25  :  16),  and  expresses  his  surprise  at 
the  pettiness  of  the  Jewish  charges  against  Paul, 
merely  "certain  questions  against  him  of  their  own 
religion,  and  of  one  Jesus,  who  was  dead,  whom  Paul 
affirmed  to  be  ahve"  (25  :  19).  Put  yourself  in  the 
place  of  Festus  and  use  his  eyes  as  you  look  upon  the 
career  of  Jesus  and  Paul's  relation  to  him,  and  you  will 
duplicate  the  attitude  of  some  modern  savants  who  with 
supercilious  scorn  write  down  Jesus  and  Paul.*  Festus 
actually  counted  it  a  merit  in  himself  that  he  offered 

*  "  And  the  root  mistake  of  much  of  what  is  called  religious- 
historical  exegesis  is  that  it  is  guilty  of  a  new  kind  of  isolation — 
an  isolation  which,  in  its  results,  proves  much  more  serious  than 
the  old.  And  the  first  essential  for  a  true  exegesis  of  the  Pauhne 
writings — and  of  the  Biblical  in  general — is  a  sympathetic  under- 
standing and  realization  of  the  new  experience  which  is  determi- 
native of  this  content."  Rev.  J.  M.  Shaw,  The  Expository  Times, 
March,  1909,  p.  253. 


PAUL  AT  BAY  251 

to  take  Paul  up  to  Jerusalem  to  clear  up  these  Jewish 
details !  He  almost  implies  that  he  might  have  set  him 
free  if  he  had  not  appealed  to  Csesar! 

The  interest  of  Agrippa  was  aroused.  It  was  evidently 
an  interesting  case.  He  should  hear  him  to-morrow. 
Hear  him  for  what?  Mainly  for  the  entertainment  of 
Agrippa  and  the  court,  and  partly  to  see  if  Agrippa 
can  elicit  from  Paul  any  charge  which  Festus  may  send 
to  the  Emperor  (25  :  26).  Festus  actually  jokes  about 
his  absurd  predicament  in  having  to  send  a  man  to 
Rome  with  no  legal  charge  against  him!  It  did  not 
occur  to  him  that  thereby  he  condemned  himself  for 
not  setting  Paul  free. 

Festus  makes  a  sort  of  court  function  of  the  affair 
(25  :  23).  They  all  knew  Paul's  ability  at  any  rate. 
Paul  takes  the  matter  seriously,  though  well  knowing 
that  nothing  could  come  of  it  for  himself  save  the 
opportunity  to  put  his  cause  in  its  true  Kght  before 
Agrippa  and  these  people  of  prominence.  One  may 
suppose  that  Luke  was  present.  This  is  the  second 
formal  defence  of  Paul's  career  that  we  have  in  Acts. 
The  one  on  the  stairs  of  the  tower  of  Antonia  was 
obviously  delivered  under  very  different  circumstances. 
He  is  still  defending  himself  against  a  charge  of  which 
he  is  not  guilty.  The  circumstances  and  the  char- 
acter of  the  address  of  Paul  render  his  defence  before 
Agrippa  one  of  the  really  great  orations  of  history. 

He  has  a  graceful  introduction  (26  :  2  f.).  Whatever 
were  the  limitations  of  FeUx  and  Festus  in  their  failure 


252  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

to  understand  Paul's  case,  here  at  last  was  a  man  who 
was  "expert  in  all  customs  and  questions  which  are 
among  the  Jews."  Hence  he  asks  for  a  patient  hear- 
ing. The  Sanhedrin  at  Jerusalem  were  disqualified 
by  their  hatred.  Agrippa  is  competent,  and  it  is  the 
first  time  that  Paul  has  had  this  good  fortune. 

Paul  recounts  the  story  of  his  early  life  to  show  that 
he  is  not  prejudiced  against  Judaism  (26  :  4  f.).  This 
is  a  matter  of  common  knowledge  among  the  Jews. 
Indeed,  he  had  been  the  strictest  sort  of  a  Pharisee. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  real  charge  against  him  now, 
that  of  being  a  Christian,  grows  out  of  his  belief  that 
Jesus  rose  from  the  dead,  a  fact  in  perfect  harmony 
with  one  of  the  leading  tenets  of  Pharisaism  (26  :  6-11). 
Pharisees  were  the  last  people  in  the  world  to  scout  the 
resurrection  from  the  dead.  He  once  felt  just  as  the 
Jews  do  now  toward  him.  But  he  became  a  Christian 
in  response  to  a  direct  manifestation  of  Jesus  himself. 
A  new  light  came  to  him  which  he  could  not  ignore 
(26  :  12-18).  It  was  a  wonderful  experience  that  on 
the  road  to  Damascus.     It  was  the  Lord's  doing. 

Who  then  can  blame  him  if  he  was  not  disobedient 
unto  the  heavenly  vision  ?  (26  :  19-23).  He  had 
preached  repentance  and  good  works  worthy  of  re- 
pentance to  both  Jews  and  Gentiles.  Indeed,  he  was 
engaged  in  a  good  work  in  the  temple  when  the  Jews 
seized  him,  but  they  seized  him  because  he  had 
preached  to  the  Gentiles.  It  was  race  prejudice  in 
truth.     God  is  still  with  him,  and  after  all  his  message 


PAUL  AT  BAY  253 

is  in  perfect  harmony  with  what  Moses  and  the  Prophets 
foretold,  that  the  Messiah  must  suffer,  must  rise  again 
and  be  proclaimed  to  both  Jew  and  Gentile. 

Agrippa  had  Hstened  intently,  but  it  was  Festus 
who  was  carried  away  with  excitement  as  Paul  rose 
in  power  toward  the  close.  Festus,  indeed,  looked 
upon  Paul  as  a  learned  fanatic.  It  was  all  beyond 
his  depth,  and  he  thought  that  Paul  was  losing  his 
mind  with  his  philosophical  subtleties.  He  showed  his 
excitement  by  his  loud  voice. 

But  Paul  calms  Festus  and  turns  with  a  pointed 
appeal  to  Agrippa  about  his  knowledge  of  the  Prophets. 
If  he  admitted  his  knowledge  of  the  Prophets,  he  either 
had  to  agree  with  Paul's  interpretation  of  them  or 
oppose  it.  He  did  not  care  to  do  either  and  so  accused 
Paul  of  trying  to  entrap  him  (26  :  28).  His  answer 
iv  oXiycp  cannot  mean  "almost"  but  it  is  not  certain 
whether  he  meant  with  little  persuasion,  in  a  little 
time  or  to  some  extent.  Either  interpretation  is 
possible  and  suits  the  context.  At  any  rate,  Agrippa 
was  too  much  of  a  Jew  to  be  caught  on  a  syllogism. 
But  Paul  makes  a  noble  prayer  for  him  with  a  delicate 
exception  of  "these  bonds." 

But  Agrippa  showed  his  freedom  from  prejudice 
by  plainly  saying  to  Festus  that  Paul  was  innocent  of 
any  wrong  from  the  Jewish  point  of  view  and  could  have 
been  set  free  if  he  had  not  appealed  to  Csesar  (26  :  32). 
Festus  knew  that  before.  Did  he  learn  what  charge 
to  make  against  Paul  ?    It  would  seem  not. 


254  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

10.  Going  to  Rome  at  Last. — Jesus  had  said  so  at 
Jerusalem  over  two  years  ago.  Paul  had  planned  it 
a  number  of  years  before.  In  a  true  sense  the  journey 
to  Rome  had  become  the  goal  of  his  ministry.  But  it 
was  not  just  to  go  to  Rome.  He  wished  to  make 
Rome  the  spring-board,  in  a  way,  for  going  on  to  the 
farther  west.  He  has  not  given  up  that  hope  in  spite 
of  the  reverses  of  the  last  two  years.  His  forebodings 
about  what  was  in  store  for  him  at  Jerusalem  had  more 
than  come  true.  The  cloud  of  Jewish  hate  had  burst 
upon  his  head  with  terrific  force.  And  yet  he  was 
not  sorry  that  he  had  come  on  to  Jerusalem.  He  had 
brought  the  collection  for  the  poor  saints.  He  had 
put  himself  right  with  the  great  body  of  disciples  in 
Jerusalem  who  had  been  led  astray  by  the  Judaizers. 
He  had  a  host  of  real  friends  now  in  Jerusalem.  There 
was  no  longer  any  real  peril  of  a  schism  in  Christianity 
over  the  Gentile  problem.  Hence  the  real  objects  of 
his  visit  to  Jerusalem  had  been  accomplished.  The 
leaders  among  the  Judaizers  will  no  more  be  able  to 
stir  the  masses  of  the  Jerusalem  disciples  against 
Paul.  Hence  they  will  have  no  real  base  of  operations. 
Their  future  movements  will  be  insignificant  in  con- 
sequence. At  last  the  Judaizing  controversy  may  be 
considered  over. 

It  would  be  interesting  to  know  how  Paul  occupied 
himself  during  the  two  years  at  Csesarea.  If  Luke 
wrote  his  Gospel  during  this  period,  as  is  possible, 
one  may  think  that  Paul  was  in  touch  with  him. 


PAUL  AT  BAY  255 

The  Gospel  of  Luke  is  often  called  Pauline  in  tone. 
Luke  gives  abundant  evidence  in  his  Gospel  to  justify 
his  claim  to  real  historical  research  for  the  facts  and 
skill  in  the  use  of  his  materials  (Luke  1  : 1-4).  He 
was  near  the  sources  of  information  and  manifestly 
made  abundant  use  of  his  opportunity  whether  he 
actually  wrote  the  Gospel  at  this  time  or  later.  But 
Paul  was  too  active  in  mind  to  be  entirely  inert  all  this 
time.  It  is  almost  tragic,  however,  to  think  of  five 
years  of  the  prime  of  Paul's  life  being  hindered  thus. 
What  could  he  not  have  done  in  the  west  during  these 
years  ? 

Ramsay,*  who  is  so  fruitful  in  original  hints  as  well 
as  fresh  facts  about  Paul,  suggests  that  Luke  (of  Phil- 
ippi)  and  Aristarchus  (of  Thessalonica)  could  only 
accompany  Paul  as  his  slaves.  They  had  to  pass  on 
the  voyage  as  Paul's  slaves,  and  this  circumstance  would 
give  Paul  added  importance  and  dignity.  Clearly 
"  Julius  treated  Paul  kindly  "  (Acts  27  : 3)  in  the  matter 
of  seeing  his  friends  at  Sidon,  though  it  might  not  fol- 
low that  he  would  allow  two  friends  to  go  with  him  all 
the  way  to  Rome.  Luke,  perhaps,  might  have  claimed 
the  right  to  go  as  Paul's  physician  if  Julius  had  that 
much  of  the  spirit  of  indulgence.  But,  at  any  rate,  it 
is  certain  that  Paul  enjoyed  more  distinction  and  con- 
sideration as  a  prisoner  of  importance  than  the  "  certain 
other  prisoners"  who  may  have  been  merely  already 
condemned  to  death  and  just  more  "human  victims 
»  "St.  Paul  the  Traveller,"  p.  316. 


256  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

to  amuse  the  populace  by  their  death  in  the  arena" 
at  Rome.*  The  Augustan  band  or  "troop  of  the 
Emperor"  may  have  been  one  of  the  auxiHary  cohort 
under  a  legionary  centurion  detached  for  service  in 
the  provinces.^ 

One  had  to  take  advantage  of  what  ships  he  could 
get  to  go  to  Rome.  Julius  took  Paul  under  his  care 
along  with  his  band  of  soldiers  and  the  other  prisoners, 
but  he  could  not  start  from  Caesarea  directly  for  Rome. 
This  particular  ship  was  bound  for  Adramyttium 
(27:2),  probably  a  coasting  vessel  now  on  its  way 
home.^  Such  a  ship  would  naturally  go  by  the  province 
of  Asia  (27 : 2).  The  reason  for  following  so  close 
in  shore  by  Sidon,  under  the  lee  of  Cyprus  (Paul's 
ship,  21  : 1,  to  Jerusalem  had  gone  west  of  Cyprus), 
off  Cilicia  and  Pamphylia,  grows  out  of  the  prevailing 
westerly  winds  at  this  season  (summer)  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean.* At  Myra,  in  Lycia  (27  :  5),  a  change  in  ships 
was  made  by  Julius.  The  first  stage  in  the  voyage, 
therefore,  is  in  the  Adramyttium  coasting  vessel  from 
Caesarea  to  Myra  (27  : 1-5). 

The  next  stage  is  from  Myra  to  Fair  Havens  in 
"a  ship  of  Alexandria  sailing  for  Italy"  (27:6-8). 
This  was  an  Alexandrian  grain  ship  (27  :  38).  With 
a  steady  western  wind  a  sailing  ship  of  the  ancients 
could  not  safely  go  directly  from  Alexandria  to  Crete. 

^  St.  Paul  the  Traveller,  p.  314.        ^  Ramsay,  Ibid.,  p.  315. 
3  Smith,  "The  Voyage  and  Shipwreck  of  St.  Paul,"  p.  62  f.; 
Conybeare  and  Howson,  Scribner's  ed.,  Vol.  II,  p.  310  f. 
*  Ibid.,  p.  67  f. 


PAUL  AT  BAY  257 

But  it  would  be  easy  to  sail  straight  for  Myra,  which 
"was  one  of  the  great  harbors  of  the  Egyptian  service."  ^ 
This  was  probably  the  usual  course  for  this  time  of 
year.  The  voyage  was  very  slow  in  the  face  of  a  con- 
trary westerly  or  north-westerly  wind.  It  would  be 
necessary  to  tack  in  and  out  along  the  coast,  and  even 
so  it  was  "with  difficulty"  that  they  came  "over  against 
Cnidus,  the  wind  not  further  suffering  us."  Smith^ 
shows  that  the  wind  was  what  would  in  popular  language 
be  termed  north-west.  Up  to  Cnidus  the  ship  could 
work  along  under  the  lee  of  the  shore  ("weather  shore"). 
But  here  a  halt  had  to  be  made  for  beyond  was  the 
open  sea.  It  would  be  useless  to  go  on  up  the  coast  of 
Asia.  Only  two  courses  were  open,  one  to  wait  at 
Cnidus  for  better  winds,  the  other  to  make  to  the  south- 
west and  get  under  the  lee  of  Crete  where  the  ship 
would  be  protected  from  the  north-west  wind  and  would 
have  made  some  progress  toward  Rome.  The  late- 
ness of  the  season  argued  for  going  to  Fair  Havens 
on  the  south  of  Crete.  This  course  was  possible 
with  a  north-west  wind,  and  Salmone  (the  eastern 
promontory)  was  reached  without  much  apparent 
trouble.  But  now  the  course  had  to  be  more  directly 
westward  so  as  not  to  get  away  from  the  protection 
of  Crete,  and  at  once  fresh  difficulty  was  found.  But 
they  coasted  along  till  Fair  Havens  was  reached. 
Luke  (27  : 9)  explains  that  much  time  was  spent 

'  Ramsay,  "St.  Paul  the  Traveller,"  p.  319. 
'  "Voyage  and  Shipwreck  of  St.  Paul,"  p.  76. 


258  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

here  until  after  "the  Fast  was  now  already  gone  by." 
This  "Fast"  was  on  the  tenth  of  Tisri,  and  was  usually 
about  the  last  of  September  or  the  first  of  October. 
Ramsay^  thinks  that  it  is  in  59  that  the  voyage  was 
made  instead  of  60,  and  so  finds  the  Fast  that  year 
October  5th.  He  argues  that  the  party  sailed  from 
Csesarea  about  August  17th.  At  any  rate,  it  is  per- 
fectly plain  that  the  time  of  the  year  has  come,  before 
the  north-west  wind  ceases,  when  it  is  dangerous  to 
put  out  into  the  open  sea.^  One  must  remember  that  the 
ancients  had  no  chart,  no  compass  and  were  unable  to 
sail  with  safety  during  the  autumnal  and  winter  storms. 
A  council  was  called  by  the  centurion  to  decide 
what  to  do.  He  seemed  to  be  in  supreme  control. 
The  captain  and  the  sailing-master  were  in  the  con- 
ference along  with  Paul.  It  was  a  tribute  to  Paul 
that,  though  a  prisoner,  he  was  treated  as  a  man  of 
experience  and  resource  in  an  emergency  like  this. 
According  to  Ramsay,^  the  centurion  outranked  the 
captain  of  the  ship  and  so  had  the  final  decision  of 
the  course  to  be  pursued.  The  point  at  issue  was  not 
whether  to  go  on  to  Rome  or  not.  That  was  ob- 
viously out  of  the  question.  It  was  merely  whether 
to  winter  at  Fair  Havens  or  to  put  to  sea  in  the  en- 
deavor to  reach  Phoenix,  a  better  haven  of  Crete,  and 
not  very  far  away.    This  harbor  probably  corresponds 

»  "St.  Paul  the  TraveUer,"  p.  322. 

»  Smith,  "Voyage  and  Shipwreck  of  St.  Paul,"  p.  84. 

3  "St.  Paul  the  Traveller,"  p.  325. 


PAUL  AT  BAY  259 

to  the  modern  Lutro,  the  only  secure  harbor  on  the 
south  of  Crete.  The  interpretation  of  Smith  ^  that  Luke 
follows  Herodotus  in  speaking  of  the  harbor  from  the 
landward  view  of  the  harbor,  which  really  faces  north- 
east and  south-east  and  thus  was  protected  from  the 
north-west  and  south-west  wind.  It  is  not  strange 
that  PauFs  advice  was  not  taken  by  the  centurion 
since  the  captain  and  the  sailing-master  were  willing 
to  try  the  voyage  to  Phoenix  (27  :  11).  It  was  the  old 
contrast  between  a  mere  preacher  and  a  business  man, 
a  man  of  common  sense.  Paul  made  his  plea  upon 
rational  grounds  ("I  perceive,"  27:10)  and  foretold 
disaster  and  loss  of  life  as  the  outcome.  The  risk  was 
too  great.  It  seems,  moreover,  from  the  expression 
"the  more  part"  that  Paul  was  not  alone  in  his  advice 
against  taking  such  chances  (27:12). 

But  when  the  wind  changed  to  a  gentle  zephyr  from 
the  south  they  had  Paul  at  a  hopeless  disadvantage 
and  the  start  was  made.  But  he  laughs  best  who 
laughs  last.  The  wind  that  had  changed  once  could 
change  again.  This  new  sudden  "tempestuous  wind" 
(typhonic)  was  called  Euraquilo  (27 :  14).  Smith^ 
shows  that  this  wind  blew  close  from  E.N.E.  The 
change  came  after  they  had  passed  Cape  Mataler 
and  were  out  in  the  open  sea.  The  language  of  Luke 
is  very  vivid.    The  wind  "  beat  down  from  "  Crete  on  the 

1" Voyage  and  Shipwreck,"  etc.,  p.  87 f.    But  Ramsay,  "St. 
Paul  the  Traveller,"  p.  326,  opposes  this  idea. 
2  "Voyage  and  Shipwreck,"  etc.,  p.  100. 

/ 


260  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

ship.  The  Cretan  mountains  rose  seven  thousand  feet 
high/  The  ship  was  headed  toward  Phoenix  and  was 
fairly  caught  "and  could  not  face  the  wind"  and  sur- 
vive. There  was  only  one  thing  to  do,  and  that  was  to 
give  way  to  the  wind  and  be  driven  by  it.  But  that 
meant  ultimately  to  strike  the  Syrtis  or  quicksands 
of  North  Africa.  It  was  no  longer  a  question  as  to 
who  was  right  or  wrong.  The  lives  of  all  were  in  peril. 
The  one  chance  for  escape  came  as  the  ship,  scudding 
before  the  wind,  came  under  the  lee  of  the  little  island 
of  Cauda  or  Clauda.  What  was  done  must  be  done 
quickly.  Three  things  were  accomplished.  The  little 
boat  was  hoisted  on  board  to  secure  it.  The  ship  itself 
was  undergirded  with  ropes  that  it  might  the  better 
stand  the  terrific  strain  of  wind  and  wave.  They 
lowered  the  gear.  Full  sail  would  mean  ruin  in  such 
a  storm.  Only  enough  was  left  up  "to  keep  the  ship's 
head  to  the  wind."^  The  ship  itself  was  on  the  star- 
board tack  with  her  head  to  the  north  so  as  to  avoid 
the  Syrtis.'  With  the  sail  down,  and  under  the  lee 
of  Cauda,  the  ship  was  brought  as  close  to  the  wind 
as  it  would  stand.  The  ship  could  sail  within  seven 
points  of  the  wind  and  would  have  six  points  for  lee- 
way, a  total  angle  of  thirteen  points.^    However,  if  the 

»  Ramsay,  "St.  Paul  the  Traveller,"  p.  327. 

»  Ramsay,  "St.  Paul  the  Traveller,"  p.  329. 

^  Smith,  "Voyage  and  Shipwreck,"  etc.,  p.  122. 

*  Smith,  "Voyage  and  Shipwreck,"  etc.,  p.  125  f.  This  posi- 
tion of  Smith  has  been  recently  challenged,  but  on  insufficient 
grounds. 


PAUL  AT  BAY  261 

wind  was  E.N.E.  the  course  of  the  vessel  would  be 
W.  by  N/  When  this  was  done  there  was  nothing 
to  do  but  to  wait.  They  would  escape  the  Syrtis. 
What  was  before  them  ?     They  were  drifting. 

They  labored  exceedingly  with  the  storm  (27 :  18). 
After  one  day  they  began  to  throw  the  freight  over- 
board. On  the  next  day  the  tackling  or  furniture  of 
the  ship  was  cast  out.  Then  for  many  days  there  was 
the  dreadful  monotony  of  no  sun  and  no  stars.  The 
tempest  raged  upon  the  ship  till  "all  hope  that  we 
should  be  saved  was  now  taken  away."  They  had 
lost  their  appetites  and  their  hope.  Then  it  was  that 
Paul  spoke  (27:21).  He  had  not  said  "I  told  you 
so"  before.  He  would  not  have  done  it  now  merely 
for  that  thankless  task.  But  he  had  a  message  of  cheer, 
and  they  needed  it  sorely.  They  will  lose  the  ship, 
but  will  save  their  lives.  He  knows  that,  for  "an 
angel  of  the  God  whose  I  am"  has  told  him.  It  was 
not  because  they  deserved  it.  God  meant  for  Paul  to 
stand  before  Caesar  (27  24)  as  the  ambassador  of 
Christ  and  had  given  him  the  Kves  of  all.  Paul  believes 
God  and  urges  all  to  be  of  good  cheer  even  in  the  face  of 
certain  shipwreck.  It  might  be  worse.  It  was  one 
gleam  of  light  in  the  black  darkness.  The  centurion 
and  the  captain  are  silent. 

They  drifted  on  till  the  fourteenth  night  came 
(27:27).  They  had  come  to  the  Sea  of  Adria.  It 
was  once  supposed  that  Luke  meant  what  is  now 
*  Conybeare  and  Howson,  Scribner's  ed.,  Vol.  II,  p.  331. 


262  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

termed  the  Adriatic  Sea  between  Italy  and  the  mainland. 
Like  many  geographical  terms  in  popular  usage,  it 
was  extended  (cf.  Asia)  to  include  the  sea  between 
Malta,  Italy,  Greece,  Crete.  Luke's  usage,  like  Strabo's, 
was  that  of  **  conversation,  not  of  Hterature."^  This 
point  is  pertinent,  for  it  is  plain  from  the  course  of  the 
vessel,  W.  by  N.,  that  it  could  not  have  gone  into  the 
Sea  of  Adria  in  the  technical  literary  sense.  It  is 
obvious  both  from  the  direction,  distance  and  time 
that  the  island  on  which  the  vessel  was  stranded, 
Melita,  is  the  modern  Malta.^  The  distance  between 
Cauda  and  Malta  is  less  than  480  miles.  Thirteen  days 
at  36  miles  a  day  would  be  468  miles.  It  was  a  Httle 
over  thirteen  days,  and  the  direction  is  that  of  Malta. 
The  sea  became  choppy  ("driven  to  and  fro")  as 
they  neared  land,  and  the  sailors  at  midnight  sus- 
pected the  truth.  The  soundings  confirmed  it.  The 
peril  now  was  that  they  would  be  hurled  upon  the 
rocks  in  the  night.  The  four  anchors  from  the  stern 
are  easily  understood  as  the  wind  was  still  E.N.E. 
To  have  put  out  the  anchors  only  in  front  might  have 
snapped  them  or  broken  the  ship  as  it  swung  round 
before  wind  and  wave.  If  not,  it  would  be  hard  to 
handle  the  ship  so  as  to  beach  her.  The  end  would 
come  with  day  if  the  anchors  held.  Paul  comes  to  the 
front  again  at  this  crisis,  for  the  sailors  with  cold  selfish- 
ness were  seeking  to  save  themselves  under  cover  of 

» Ramsay,  "St.  Paul  the  Traveller,"  p.  334. 
'  Smith,  "Voyage  and  Shipwreck,"  etc.,  p.  126. 


PAUL  AT  BAY  263 

the  darkness  by  means  of  the  boat  that  had  been 
preserved.  With  sailors  and  boat  both  gone  the  rest 
would  be  in  poor  pHght.  The  sailors  professed  that 
they  were  going  to  swing  out  anchors  from  the  foreship 
also  (27:30).  Paul  had  plainly  promised  that  the 
Hves  of  all  would  be  spared.  But  he  now  as  pointedly 
told  the  centurion  and  the  soldiers  that  they  would 
lose  their  Hves  if  they  let  the  sailors  go.  The  soldiers 
were  quick  to  see  the  point,  and  settled  the  matter  by 
cutting  the  rope  and  setting  the  boat  adrift  before  the 
sailors  got  into  it. 

Paul  is  now  master  of  ceremonies.  "He  speaks  as 
the  prophet,  not  the  anxious  passenger."^  Ramsay 
rightly  sees  no  objection  to  Paul's  rise  to  this  point 
of  view  in  the  crisis.  The  fasting  had  not  been  volun- 
tary, indeed.  No  one  had  taste  for  food  at  such  a  time. 
But  it  had  gone  on  too  long.  Desperate  work  was 
ahead  of  them  and  they  needed  food.  Paul  begged 
them  to  eat  with  the  assurance  that  not  one  should 
lose  a  hair  of  his  head  (27 :  34).  This  was  not  mere 
optimism;  it  was  faith  in  God.  He  said  grace  for 
this  unusual  breakfast  in  the  early  dawn.  It  was  a 
goodly  company  of  276  souls  in  all.  They  lightened 
the  ship  by  throwing  the  wheat  into  the  sea  so  that  they 
could  run  the  ship  as  far  up  on  the  pebbly  beach  as 
possible.  St.  Paul's  Bay,  in  Malta,  with  its  little  island, 
creek,  and  two  seas  meeting,  fulfils  all  the  conditions 
of  Luke's  narrative. 

» Ramsay,  "St.  Paul  the  Traveller,"  p.  337. 


264  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

When  the  ship  was  run  aground  it  was  not  long  be- 
fore the  stern  began  to  break  in  pieces  before  the  waves. 
Now  the  soldiers  fail,  as  the  sailors  did  before,  to  rise 
to  any  nobility  of  conduct.  They  actually  propose 
to  kill  all  the  prisoners  for  fear  some  of  them  may 
escape  (27 :  42).  Once  again  Paul's  promise  of  no 
loss  of  life  came  near  to  failure.  But  the  centurion 
Juhus  had  evidently  recognized  his  obligations  to 
Paul,  who  was  no  ordinary  prisoner  and  a  Roman  citi- 
zen besides.  He  desired  to  save  Paul  and  hence  re- 
fused to  let  the  soldiers  have  their  way.  It  is  a  vivid 
picture  of  the  rescue  of  all,  some  on  planks,  some  on 
plunder  from  the  ship,  some  by  swimming.  They  were 
safe  on  shore  as  Paul  had  said. 

Luke  appears  wonderfully  well  as  an  historian  in 
chap.  27.  He  is  here  on  a  par  with  Thucydides  in 
grasp  and  power.  Indeed,  this  chapter  furnishes  more 
information  about  ancient  seafaring  than  any  other 
source.  Smith's  "Voyage  and  Shipwreck  of  St.  Paul" 
is  the  great  monograph  on  this  chapter. 

Luke  is  particularly  proud  of  his  hero  for  his  con- 
duct during  this  voyage.  Even  ''the  barbarians"  of 
MeUta  (28  : 1  f.)  could  be  uncommonly  kind.  The 
term  with  Luke  means  only  non-Greek,  not  uncivil- 
ized. Luke  here  writes  from  the  Greek  point  of  view. 
It  is  a  pathetic  picture,  the  cold,  the  rain,  the  bedraggled 
condition  of  the  whole  company.  Paul  was  not  a 
mere  spectator,  and  his  zeal  was  responsible  for  his 
not  perceiving  the  viper  which  came  out  by  reason 


PAUL  AT  BAY  265 

of  the  heat  and  fastened  on  his  hand.  There  are 
said  to  be  now  no  vipers  on  the  island,  but  that  proves 
nothing  about  this  time.  The  snake  may  or  may  not 
have  been  poisonous;  but  the  people  thought  it  so. 
Popular  interpretation  of  such  incidents  is  well  illus- 
trated here.  One  moment  Paul  is  a  murderer,  the 
next  a  god.  At  Lystra  it  was  first  a  god,  and  then  one 
fit  only  for  death.  Paul's  stay  of  three  months  in 
the  island  was  not  without  good  results.  Publius 
was  the  ruler  of  the  island  whose  title  was  "first"  ac- 
cording to  inscriptional  support.  As  at  Cyprus, 
Thessalonica  and  elsewhere,  Luke  is  found  to  be  mi- 
nutely accurate.  Paul  appears  here  as  the  healer  of 
diseases  (along  with  Luke?),  after  the  manner  en- 
joined in  James  5  :  14  f.  He  had  the  example  of  Jesus 
also. 

In  the  early  spring  or  late  winter  (February)  "a 
ship  of  Alexandria  which  had  wintered  in  the  island" 
(28  :  11)  with  the  sign  of  The  Twin  Brothers  set  sail 
for  Italy.  They  had  probably  been  caught  here  just 
as  Paul's  second  ship  had  been  at  Fair  Havens,  but 
had  followed  wise  counsel  and  waited  for  spring.  One 
can  imagine  Paul's  eagerness  to  get  on  to  Rome,  and 
Luke  greatly  abbreviates  the  narrative  here.  They 
do  spend  three  days  at  Syracuse,  famous  seat  of  Greek 
culture.  At  Rhegium  they  wait  a  day  for  a  south  wind 
which  blows  them  safely  to  Puteoli.  Here  Paul  and 
his  party  land.  Nothing  is  said  about  Julius  and 
his  soldiers  and  other  prisoners.     It  is  simply  assumed 


266  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

that  they  go  along  too.  It  is  noteworthy  that  Paul 
found  brethren  at  Puteoli.  It  was,  indeed,  a  great 
harbor  and  shows  that  Christianity  was  spreading 
from  Rome  over  Italy  (cf.  Heb.  13 :  24). 

11.  The  Reception  at  Rome. — ^Ramsay^  explains  the 
double  mention  of  coming  to  Rome  (28  :  14,  16)  by 
the  two  senses  of  the  word  Rome  as  city-state  in  Greek. 
Paul  first  came  to  the  district  of  Rome,  then  to  the 
walls  of  Rome.  He  had  spent  seven  days  at  Puteoli, 
and  that  gave  time  for  the  brethren  there  to  send  word 
on  to  Rome  that  the  great  Apostle  was  approaching 
the  city.  They  had  received  his  Epistle  nearly  three 
years  before  this.  It  is  possible  that  they  had  been 
notified  of  his  trials  in  Judea.  At  any  rate,  they  send 
a  delegation  out  to  greet  Paul  at  the  Market  of  Appius 
and  The  Three  Taverns.  He  was  travelling  the  famous 
Appian  Way,  portions  of  which  are  still  in  use  and 
testify  to  the  greatness  of  the  Roman  roads.  Paul 
was  not  insensible  to  the  great  historic  scenes  all 
around  him  as  he  neared  the  mighty  city.  But  at  this 
moment  his  chief  joy  was  in  seeing  the  brethren,  per- 
haps some  of  those  whom  he  already  knew  and  loved 
(cf.  Rom.  16).  He  had  had  enough  to  discourage 
the  stoutest  heart.  But  now  "he  thanked  God  and 
took  courage."  Jesus  had  kept  his  word.  He  had 
brought  him  to  Rome.  True,  he  had  not  expected 
to  come  in  this  manner.  The  brethren  must  excuse 
the  soldier  and  the  chain  (28  :  16). 

»  "St.  Paul  the  Traveller,"  p.  347. 


PAUL  AT  BAY  267 

It  used  to  be  said  that  Paul  was  delivered  over  to  one 
of  the  Praetorian  Prefects,  who  at  that  time  was  the  noble 
Burrus.  But  Ramsay*  argues  plausibly,  following 
Mommsen,  that  the  Stratopedarch  in  some  mss.  of 
Acts  27  :  16  (absent  from  the  oldest)  means  Princeps 
Peregrinorum,  the  commanding  officer  of  the  "soldiers 
from  abroad"  who  were  used  to  conduct  prisoners  to 
Rome  and  had  a  camp  on  the  Coelian  Hill  called 
Castra  Peregrinorum.  It  was  to  this  Stratopedarch , 
not  to  the  Praetorian  Prefect,  that  Julius  delivered  his 
famous  prisoner.  It  may  be  replied  that  Paul  in 
Phil.  1:13  and  4  :  22  shows  somewhat  close  relations 
with  the  Praetorian  Camp.  But  still  he  did  not  Hve  in 
either  camp,  but  in  his  own  hired  house  (Acts  28 :  30). 
If  he  was  under  the  control  of  the  Stratopedarch y  he 
might  still  occasionally  preach  to  the  Praetorian 
Guard. 

Paul's  first  joy  was  with  the  brethren  whom  he  knew 
in  Rome.  They  probably  brought  others  to  see  him 
so  that  he  soon  had  new  friends  in  Rome.  It  was  an 
unspeakable  joy  for  him  to  have  this  spiritual  fellowship. 
He  is  established  in  his  own  house,  but  he  does  not 
know  how  long  he  will  have  to  wait  for  his  trial.  He 
must  have  known  by  this  time  how  slow  Roman  legal 
procedure  could  be.  Certain  forms  had  to  be  observed. 
The  charge  against  him  had  to  arrive,  if  by  this  time 
Festus  knew  what  to  do  about  the  matter.  The  wit- 
nesses had  to  be  gathered  together.  Other  reasons 
^  "St.  Paul  the  Traveller,"  p.  348. 


268  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

will  occur  later.  These  were  present  at  the  first  and 
made  it  plain  that  an  immediate  trial  was  out  of  the 
question. 

12.  The  Effort  to  Win  the  Jews.— Paul  waited  only 
three  days  to  get  together  the  chief  men  of  the  Jews 
(28  :  17).  It  was  important  to  have  their  sympathy 
if  possible.  Besides,  Paul  was  anxious  to  win  these 
Jewish  leaders  to  the  service  of  Christ.  Poppoea, 
the  infamous  wife  of  Nero,  was  a  Jewess.  If  his  case 
came  before  Nero  himself,  she  might  be  reached  by 
the  hostile  Jews.  So  Paul  gives  them  a  brief  account 
of  the  history  of  his  case.  He  was  innocent  of  any 
wrong  to  the  Jewish  people  or  customs;  yet  the  Jews 
had  delivered  him  up  to  the  Romans  who  had  desired 
to  set  him  at  liberty  but  for  the  Jews  who  were  so  bitter 
against  him.  Hence  he  had  appealed  to  Caesar.  But 
he  is  not  here  to  make  any  accusations  against  his 
people.  In  fact,  he  is  bound  with  this  chain  because  of 
the  hope  of  Israel.  It  was  a  skilful  plea,  but  the  Jews 
were  wary.  They  had  received  no  letters  about  his  case 
nor  had  any  of  the  Jews  from  Palestine  now  in  Rome 
said  aught  against  Paul.  But  they  would  like  to  hear 
his  views,  for,  they  must  confess,  "his  sect"  was  every- 
where spoken  against  by  the  Jews.  He  had  that  much 
against  him.  He  was  a  Christian.  It  was  not  a  very 
hopeful  beginning,  though  they  were  willing  to  listen. 

So,  on  a  stated  day,  Paul  endeavors  to  win  the  great 
crowd  of  Roman  Jews  that  came.  He  gave  them  his 
interpretation  of   the  kingdom  of  God  and  sought  to 


PAUL  AT  BAY  269 

prove  that  Moses  and  the  Prophets  foretold  Jesus  as 
the  Messiah.  It  was  an  all-day  meeting.  He  had 
some  success  also,  but  a  number  disbelieved.  Paul's 
"one  word"  to  this  part  who  resisted  is  in  accord  with 
Rom.  9-11.  He  reminds  them  of  the  curse  of  Isaiah 
on  them  (6:9  f.),  a  curse  often  on  the  lips  of  Jesus. 
But  the  Gentiles  in  Rome  will  hear,  if  the  Jews  do  not 
(Acts  28 :  28). 

13.  The  Belay  of  Paul's  Trial. — Luke  passes  over 
two  whole  years  of  Paul's  life  in  Rome  with  no  record 
save  what  is  contained  in  two  verses  (28  :  30  f.).  He 
lived  in  his  own  hired  dwelling,  had  free  intercourse 
with  his  friends  in  spite  of  his  chain  and  the  soldier, 
had  perfect  freedom  in  preaching  the  kingdom  to  all 
who  came  and  in  teaching  the  things  concerning  the 
Lord  Jesus  Christ,  and  he  did  this  with  boldness. 
This,  therefore,  is  Luke's  picture  of  Paul's  Hfe  in  Rome 
for  two  years.  We  are  grateful  for  this  much  informa- 
tion, but  cannot  help  wondering  why  we  do  not  have 
more,  especially  as  Luke  was  with  Paul  nearly  all  of 
this  time. 

If  Luke  wrote  the  Acts  a  good  while  afterward, 
it  may  be  explained  that  his  object  in  the  Acts  was 
merely  to  take  Paul  to  Rome.  That  was  the  climax 
of  his  career.  With  that  goal  Luke  was  satisfied  and 
may  have  meant  to  write  another  volume  carrying  on 
Paul's  career  to  the  end.  That  is  a  possible  interpre- 
tation, though  it  leaves  unexplained  why  Luke  should 
have  mentioned  the  item  about  the  "two  years"  if  he 


270  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

only  meant  to  take  him  to  Rome.  In  reality  he  takes 
him  almost  up  to  the  time  of  his  release. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  we  suppose  that  Luke  fin- 
ished the  Acts  at  the  point  where  he  stops  the  book, 
we  have  the  "two  years"  explained  and  also  the  reason 
why  he  went  no  further  in  this  volume.  The  question 
of  a  third  volume  is  not  raised.  Luke  used  the  leisure 
of  the  years  in  Rome  to  write  the  book  with  Paul  to 
draw  on  for  much  information  for  his  career.  We 
should  still  have  left  the  perplexity  why  Luke  gave 
so  little  space  to  the  two  years  in  Rome.  But,  after 
all,  they  may  have  been  rather  uneventful  years. 
There  were  friends  of  Paul  coming  and  going.  He 
wrote  great  Epistles  to  distant  churches.  But  the 
life  itself  in  Rome  before  the  trial  may  not  have  been 
marked  by  unusual  incident.  On  the  whole,  I  incline 
to  this  interpretation  of  the  situation. 

The  trial  itself  must  wait  on  the  whim  of  Nero  or 
of  one  of  the  two  Prsetorian  Prefects.  We  do  not  know 
before  whom  Paul  actually  appeared.  We  know  how 
dilatory  Tiberius  was  in  such  cases,  and  Nero  was 
proverbially  averse  to  real  business.  He  was  the 
victim  of  caprice  and  impulse.  Ramsay^  suggests 
that  his  opponents  may  have  wished  also  to  put  the 
trial  off  as  long  as  possible,  knowing  that  they  could 
not  make  a  real  case  against  Paul  (cf.  the  dilemma  of 
Festus).  He  thinks  also  that  the  Imperial  OflSce  may 
have  been  making  investigation.  He  adds :  "  The  whole 
»  St.  Paul  the  Traveller,"  p.  356. 


PAUL  AT  BAY  271 

question  of  free  teaching  of  an  Oriental  religion  by 
a  Roman  citizen  must  have  been  opened  up  by  the  case; 
and  it  is  quite  possible  that  Paul's  previous  proceedings 
were  inquired  into." 

As  we  look  back  upon  the  Rome  of  the  early  60*s 
the  three  men  who  stand  out  most  prominently  from 
our  point  of  view  are  Paul,  Nero  and  Seneca.  But 
at  that  time  it  would  have  seemed  ridiculous  to  the 
world  at  large  to  put  Paul  in  the  same  class  with  Nero 
and  Seneca.  Paul  in  reahty  rose  so  far  above  them 
both  in  all  the  real  elements  of  character  and  man- 
hood that  one  now  feels  like  apologizing  for  mention- 
ing them  in  connection  with  Paul.  It  is  a  striking 
instance  of  the  superiority  of  the  spiritual  forces  of 
life  over  the  material.  Pomp,  station,  power  were  with 
Nero  and  his  brilliant  but  servile  and  inconsistent 
minister  of  state,  Seneca.  Paul  was  only  a  Jewish 
Christian  preacher,  a  prisoner  with  ugly  charges 
against  him  from  the  Jews  themselves,  at  best  a  fanatic 
out  of  touch  with  the  real  life  of  the  time.  Pilate, 
Caiaphas,  and  Jesus  met  one  day  in  Jerusalem.  We 
do  not  know  that  Nero,  Seneca  and  Paul  ever  met 
in  Rome.  They  meet  in  our  ideas  of  the  Rome  of  the 
time.  Paul  had  appealed  to  Nero,  the  incarnation 
of  unbridled  lust  and  whimsical  power.  Seneca  was 
the  brilliant  Stoic  philosopher  who  turned  out  aphorisms 
and  sententious  sayings  for  the  benefit  of  other  people 
who  had  himself  little  real  moral  fibre  and  force.  It 
has  been  thought  by  some  that  Seneca  and  Paul  met 


272  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

and  had  influence,  the  one  on  the  other.  But  Lightfoot* 
is  followed  by  Ramsay^  in  the  view  that  what  bond  of 
contact  may  exist  was  not  personal  nor  direct,  but  in- 
direct. Paul  knew  the  Stoic  tenets  of  the  day.  He  had 
lived  in  Tarsus,  the  home  of  Athenodorus,  a  leading 
Stoic  philosopher  who  had  afterward  come  to  Rome. 
Seneca  shows  evident  use  of  Athenodorus.  There  is 
no  real  evidence  for  thinking  that  Seneca  was  a  dis- 
ciple of  Paul  nor  that  Caesar  himself  was  a  believer 
because  the  gospel  took  root  in  some  members  of  his 
numerous  household  (Phil.  4  :  22).  But  Paul,  Nero 
and  Seneca  represent  the  great  forces  of  the  time. 
Nero  was  the  acme  of  Roman  absolutism.  Seneca 
was  the  refinement  of  Roman  Stoicism  putting  a  good 
interpretation  upon  the  evil  life  of  the  time  under  cover 
of  half-hearted  protest.  Paul  was  the  uncompro- 
mising exponent  of  the  supremacy  of  the  spirit  over  the 
flesh,  the  gospel  that  was  to  brush  aside  Stoicism  and 
to  subdue  the  civil  power  to  Christ.  But  that  will 
only  come  after  ages  of  conflict.  Victory  will  ulti- 
mately be  on  Paul's  side  in  spite  of  his  lowly  estate  and 
partly  because  of  what  he  here  undergoes.  And  Paul 
never  gave  way  in  Rome  to  the  obsession  of  circum- 
stance. He  was  always  the  ambassador  of  Christ 
even  if  in  chains  (Eph.  6  :  20). 

14.  The  Love  of  the  Philippians  for  Paul:     The 
Epistle  to  the  Philippians. — Paul  did  not  lose  interest 

*  "Commentary  on  Philippians." 
»  "St.  Paul  the  Traveller,"  p.  354. 


PAUL  AT  BAY  273 

in  the  problems  of  the  East  by  reason  of  his  imprison- 
ment in  Rome.  It  could  have  been  easy  for  some 
men  to  become  out  of  humor  with  everybody  and  every- 
thing when  checked  and  hedged  in  as  Paul  now  was. 
So  far  from  that  Paul  is  the  comforter  and  inspirer, 
not  only  of  the  many  friends  in  Rome,  but  also  of  the 
churches  back  in  the  East  where  he  had  so  long  labored. 
He  retains  his  world  outlook  and  world  sympathy  and 
his  environment  does  not  change  his  buoyant  optimism 
nor  slacken  his  energy  of  thought  and  action. 

Communication  between  Rome  and  distant  parts 
of  the  empire  was  easy  and  constant,  thanks  to  the 
fine  system  of  Roman  roads  and  postal  service.  Paul 
was  not  long  without  expressions  of  sympathy  from  the 
East,  as  friends  of  his  would  be  going  from  Rome  or 
coming  to  Rome.  The  going  of  some  of  these  friends 
gave  him  the  opportunity  to  send  messages  to  several 
of  the  churches  that  are  of  priceless  value  to  the  modern 
world.  New  problems  had  arisen  in  some  parts  of  the 
East  since  Paul  was  there  that  furnish  the  occasion  for 
a  discussion  of  the  person  of  Christ  and  the  dignity  of 
the  Christian  life  upon  a  loftier  plane  than  Paul  had 
reached  before.  It  is  not  that  his  theology  has  changed, 
but  that  it  is  enriched  in  his  grapple  with  the  new  issues. 
He  here  sounds  depths  and  reaches  heights  beyond 
what  he  did  even  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans. 

The  order  of  this  third  group  of  Paul's  Epistles  is  a 
matter  of  dispute.  There  is  no  doubt  at  all  that  three 
of  them  were  sent  at  the  same  time  (Philemon,  Colos- 


274  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

sians,  Ephesians).  Onesimus  was  the  bearer  of  the 
letter  to  Philemon  (10)  and  along  with  Tychicus  of 
that  to  the  Colossians  (4  :  7-9).  Tychicus  was  also  the 
bearer  of  the  letter  called  that  to  the  Ephesians  (6  :  21). 
The  only  matter  of  dispute  is  whether  the  Epistle  to 
the  Philippians  was  written  before  or  after  this  group 
of  three.  Unfortunately  there  is  no  absolutely  con- 
clusive evidence  on  this  point  and  the  scholars  disagree.^ 
Timothy  is  with  Paul  when  all  are  written  (Phil. 
1:1;  Philem.  1).  Aristarchus  (Col.  4  :  10)  and  Luke 
(Col.  4  :  14)  are  with  Paul  when  the  group  of  three  are 
sent,  besides  a  number  of  others  (Col.  4  :  10-14).  It 
seems  as  if  neither  Aristarchus  nor  Luke  is  present 
when  Paul  writes  to  the  Philippians  (2  :  19-21).  But 
there  are  several  ways  of  explaining  this  fact.  In  both 
Philippians  (1:25;  2:24)  and  Philemon  (22)  Paul 
expects  to  be  set  free,  a  little  more  confidently,  indeed, 
in  Philemon, except  that  he  uses  "shortly"  in  Phil.  2  :24. 
He  wishes  prayers  for  his  release  (Col.  4  :  18).  In  the 
absence  of  decisive  evidence  either  way  I  fall  back  upon 
Lightfoot's  use  of  the  doctrinal  situation.  In  Colossians 
and  Ephesians  there  is  no  echo  of  the  Judaizing  con- 
troversy, but  in  Phil.  3  we  do  have  something  of  the 
same  point  of  view  found  in  the  great  doctrinal  Epistles. 
Then  again  in  chapter  2  of  Phil,  the  person  of  Christ 
comes  to  the  fore  as  it  does  more  prominently  still  in 
Colossians  and  Ephesians.  As  a  matter  of  fact  it  is  not 
necessary  for  any  great  length  of  time  to  exist  between 
*  Hort,  "  Judaistic  Christianity,"  p.  114,  puts  Philippians  first. 


PAUL  AT  BAY  275 

Philemon  and  the  rest.  They  may  all  come  in  the 
last  year  of  Paul's  first  imprisonment  in  Rome,  Philip- 
pians  at  the  beginning  of  that  year. 

Paul  has  been  long  enough  in  Rome  for  some  positive 
work  for  Christ  to  have  been  done.  The  gospel  has 
made  progress  in  Rome  by  reason  of  his  imprisonment 
even  in  the  Praetorian  Guard  (Phil.  1  :  12-14).  His 
courage,  though  he  is  in  bonds,  has  been  contagious. 
True,  he  has  found  enemies  even  in  Rome,  who  seem  to 
correspond  with  the  old  Judaizers  in  the  East  (1  :  15  ff .). 
These  rejoice  in  Paul's  troubles  and  enjoy  anno3dng 
him  by  preaching  in  Rome,  right  where  Paul  is,  a 
perverted  gospel.  But  Paul  finds  joy  in  the  fact  that 
even  so  men  can  learn  something  of  Christ  though 
mixed  with  error.  There  are  enemies  of  the  cross 
of  Christ  in  Rome  as  there  were  in  PhiHppi,  as  Paul 
used  to  tell  them,  and  it  causes  him  to  weep  to  say  so 
now  (3  :  18).  The  gospel  has  gone  not  simply  to  the 
Praetorian  Guard,  but  even  to  Caesar's  household 
(4  :  22).  We  are  grateful  for  these  gUmpses  of  Paul's 
life  and  work  in  Rome. 

In  the  Epistle  Paul  describes  beautifully  and  deli- 
cately the  love  of  the  Philippians  for  himself  and  his 
appreciation  of  their  affection.  The  saints  at  Philippi 
had  been  the  first  to  contribute  to  Paul's  support  and 
for  a  while  the  only  church  to  do  so  (4  :  15).  He  would 
not  allow  the  mission  church  where  he  labored  to  pay 
him  for  fear  of  being  considered  a  man  seeking  their 
money,  though  he  was  entitled  to  it  (I  Cor.  9 : 7-18). 


276  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

The  Philippians  had  helped  Paul  repeatedly  Phil. 
(4  :  16)  from  the  first  until  now  (1  : 5).  They  had 
the  fellowship  in  the  mission  cause  that  comes  from 
giving  to  its  advancement.  He  would  not  allow  the 
Corinthian  church  to  do  anything  for  him  even  after  he 
left,  though  by  this  time  other  churches  had  followed 
the  example  of  the  Philippian  church  (II  Cor.  11  :  7  f.; 
12  :  13  f.).  He  appreciates  more  than  he  can  tell  their 
spirit  and  this  present  gift  (Phil.  4 :  18),  and  he  is  rich 
indeed.  Not  that  he  cares  so  much  for  the  gift,  but 
the  love  behind  it  (4  :  17).  He  has  learned  by  bitter 
experience  the  secret  of  contentment,  how  to  be  filled 
and  to  be  hungry  (4  :  11-13).  But  God  will  bless 
them  for  their  gift  (4  :  19). 

Paul  is  grieved  over  the  misfortunes  that  befell 
Epaphroditus  after  his  arrival  in  Rome.  He  was  sick 
nigh  unto  death  (2  :  30).  Did  he  come  in  the  summer 
and  catch  the  Roman  fever?  After  Epaphroditus 
recovered,  he  learned  that  the  Philippians  had  heard 
of  his  illness  and  this  knowledge  added  to  his  grief. 
Hence  he  is  going  back  to  Philippi  with  Paul's  letter 
and  love  (2  :  25  f.).  Good  thus  came  out  of  evil  for 
the  Philippians  and  for  us. 

The  Epistle  itself  is  full  of  love  and  joy.  The  very 
noblest  side  of  Paul's  nature  is  uppermost  in  this  message 
of  hope  from  his  state  of  imprisonment.  He  had 
with  Silas  even  sung  praises  in  the  jail  at  Philippi. 
The  key-note  of  the  letter  to  the  Philippians  is  joy. 
The  letter  is  not  keyed  to  the  discussion  of  a  great 


PAUL  AT  BAY  277 

doctrine.  It  is  rather  discursive  after  the  manner  of  I 
Thessalonians  and  I  Timothy.  But  in  chapter  2  : 1-11 
we  have  the  classic  passage  about  the  humiliation  of 
Christ,  while  in  3  : 1-16  we  have  not  only  the  contrast 
between  Paul's  ideals  as  a  Pharisee  and  as  a  Christian 
(cf.  Rom.  7),  but  also  the  matchless  passion  of  his  striv- 
ing for  the  goal  of  Christ-likeness.  This  singleness  of  aim 
(3  :  13  f.)  and  identity  of  spirit  with  Christ  (1  :  21)  is 
enough  to  distinguish  any  epistle.  Put  beside  this  also 
the  motto  for  high  thinking  and  high  doing  (4:8  f.). 

One  would  Uke  to  know  the  name  of  the  "  true  yoke- 
fellow" addressed  in  4  : 3,  since  the  Epistle  as  a  whole 
is  directed  to  the  saints,  bishops,  and  deacons  (the 
entire  church)  at  Philippi  (1  : 1).  But  Paul  had 
many  fellow-workers  in  Philippi  besides  Clement, 
and  the  two  sisters  who  did  not  have  the  same  mind 
(4:2f.). 

It  is  not  necessary  to  think  that  Paul  had  suffered 
undue  depression  about  the  delay  in  his  trial  because 
of  the  balance  that  he  strikes  between  life  and  death 
(1  :  21-24).  For  several  years  surely  he  has  looked 
death  in  the  face.  In  his  last  letter  to  Corinth  (II 
Cor.  5  : 1-10)  he  expressed  the  same  preference  for 
death  that  we  see  here.  It  is  not  the  melancholia  of 
a  hypochondriac,  but  the  spiritual  aspiration  of  one 
who  is  longing  for  the  end  of  the  road  where  he  can  get 
out  of  the  harness  and  rest  with  Christ  (1  :  23). 
But  meanwhile  he  will  work  gladly,  knowing  that  the 
Lord  is  near  him  (4  : 5). 


278  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

15.  A  Specimen  of  Paulas  Work  in  Rome:  The 
Epistle  to  Philemon. — The  Epistle  to  the  PhiHppians 
makes  it  clear,  besides  Luke's  closing  comment  in  Acts, 
that  Paul  was  not  idle  in  Rome.  He  is  still  the  central 
moving  force  in  Gentile  Christianity.  His  heart  goes 
out  to  all  the  world,  and  he  fights  his  battles  with  his 
pen  and  his  prayers.  These  Epistles  breathe,  indeed, 
the  atmosphere  of  his  surroundings,  but  they  have 
caught  also  the  breath  of  Heaven.  Paul  moves  on 
the  holy  heights  of  spiritual  vision.  But  now  we  have 
a  sample  of  Paul's  work  in  Rome  itself. 

All  sorts  of  people  came  to  Rome.  Runaway  slaves 
came  among  others.  Slaves  were  not  necessarily  de- 
graded persons.  They  were  often  captives  taken  in 
war  and  might  be  superior  in  culture  to  their  masters. 
In  Rome  itself  the  Greek  slaves  were  often  the  school- 
teachers in  the  family.  It  is  clear  that  Onesimus  had 
run  away  from  his  master  Philemon  at  Colossse 
(Philem.  12)  and  it  is  implied  that  he  had  taken  some- 
thing as  he  left  (18  f.).  Paul  had  labored  successfully 
with  those  in  high  station,  but  he  was  not  above  win- 
ning a  slave  to  Christ  and  calling  him  a  brother  in 
Christ  (16),  his  child  in  the  gospel  (10). 

It  was,  indeed,  a  very  delicate  situation  with  so 
many  slaves  in  the  Roman  Empire.  It  is  now  Paul  the 
aged  and  the  prisoner  of  Christ  (9)  who  sends  back  the 
converted  runaway  slave  to  his  Christian  master  (12). 
The  law  will  be  observed,  but  he  is  not  to  come  back 
just  as  he  was.    He  is  to  be  loved  and  treated  as  Paul 


PAUL  AT  BAY  279 

would  be  (17),  and  Paul  hints  that  Philemon  will  set 
him  free  (21).  He  gave  a  new  conception  of  love  for 
a  slave  that  has  set  all  slaves  free  in  Christendom  and 
will  ultimately  shake  off  all  shackles  everywhere. 

This  is  a  purely  personal  letter,  but  it  is  rich  in  the 
spirit  of  Christ.  Besides  Philemon  it  is  addressed  to 
Archippus  and  Apphia.  Was  the  church  that  met 
in  the  house  of  Philemon  at  Colossse  (2)  the  same  as 
the  one  that  meets  in  the  house  of  Nymphas  (Col. 
4  :  15)  ?  Were  they  separate  organizations  or  different 
meeting-places  for  the  same  body?  Besides  Aristar- 
chus,  Luke  and  Timothy,  Paul  has  with  him  Demas, 
Epaphras  and  Mark  (Philem.  1,  23  f.),  who  has  now 
regained  the  favor  of  Paul.  Like  Onesimus,  who  was 
once  unprofitable  to  Philemon  (11),  Mark  has  become 
useful  to  Paul. 

16.  The  New  Peril  of  Gnosticism:  The  Epistle  to 
the  Colossians. — It  was  the  coming  of  Epaphras  from 
Colossse  to  Rome  (Col.  1  : 7;  4  :  12)  with  news  of  the 
new  heresy  in  the  Lycus  Valley  that  stirred  Paul  to 
action  in  the  matter.  Paul  had  not  preached  at  Colos- 
sae,  but  Epaphras  had  estabhshed  this  work.  He 
had  labored  also  much  at  Hierapolis  and  Laodicea 
(4  :  13),  also  in  the  same  valley  in  the  province  of  Asia. 
We  have  here  indications  of  the  spread  of  the  Gospel 
in  a  province  already  mentioned  by  Luke  (Acts  19  :  10). 
Paul  had  apparently  seen  signs  of  the  new  heresy 
when  at  Miletus  (Acts  20  :  29  f.).  Paul  is  so  much 
aroused  about  the  situation  in  the  valley  of  the  Lycus 


280  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

that  he  sends  Tychicus  and  Onesimus  now  to  comfort 
their  hearts  (CoL  4  : 8  f.),  and  hopes  to  send  Mark  later 
(4  :  10).  Indeed,  he  had  already  communicated  with 
them  about  Mark,  whether  personally  through  Barnabas, 
Mark's  cousin,  or  by  letter,  we  do  not  know.  But  this 
is  not  all.  Paul  sends  also  along  with  this  Epistle  one 
to  the  Laodiceans.  He  urges  that  each  church  make 
an  exchange  of  Epistles  (4  :  16),  a  hint  as  to  the  custom 
with  Paul's  other  Epistles.  It  is  generally  supposed 
that  this  Laodicean  Epistle  is  the  one  known  to  us  as 
the  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians.* 

It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  Paul  has  the  situation 
well  in  mind  before  he  writes  the  Epistle  to  the  Colos- 
sians.  Although  Mark  was  the  cousin  of  Barnabas, 
he  is  grouped  by  Paul  with  Aristarchus  and  Justus  as 
belonging  to  the  party  of  the  circumcision  (4  :  10  f.). 
Mark  had  been  working  with  Simon  Peter  also,  or, 
at  any  rate,  soon  will  be  with  him  (1  Pet.  5  :  13).  Paul 
cherishes  no  bitterness  towards  Jewish  Christians  as 
such.  These  men  were  not  Judaizers,  but  were  follow- 
ing the  ministry  alluded  to  in  Gal.  2:9.  It  is  in  this 
Epistle  (Col.  4  :  14)  that  Paul  gives  Luke  the  praise  of 
"the  beloved  physician."  That  was  probably  not 
merely  PauFs  own  love,  but  the  common  feeling 
among  the  Roman  Christians  toward  this  noble 
servant  of  Christ.  There  are  few  more  beautiful 
relations  in  life  than  that  between  the  preacher 
and  the  Christian  physician.  In  concluding  Paul 
»Cf.  Rutherford,  "Epistles  to  Colossse  and  Laodicea"  (1908). 


PAUL  AT  BAY  281 

calls  attention   to  the  signature  with  his  own  hand 
(4:18). 

What  was  the  new  heresy  in  the  Lycus  Valley? 
It  is  diflScult  to  explain  Paul's  language  in  this  Epistle 
without  thinking  of  an  incipient  Gnosticism  that  had 
been  blended  with  Jewish  Essenism.  There  is  no 
doubt  about  the  existence  of  Gnosticism  of  an  ad- 
vanced type  in  this  part  of  Asia  in  the  second  century. 
The  case  of  Simon  Magus  in  Acts  8  is  a  forecast  also 
of  what  was  coming.  Hort/  indeed,  fails  to  see  any 
evidence  of  either  Essenic  or  Gnostic  influence  in 
Colossians.  He  sees  merely  Jewish  speculation  with 
some  Greek  influence  as  at  Corinth.  This  is  a  justi- 
fiable reaction  against  the  extreme  opinion  that  the 
Gnosticism  of  the  second  century  is  found  at  Colossse 
in  A.D.  62-3.  Still,  I  can  but  think  that  Lightfoot,  in 
his  masterly  essay  on  the  Colossian  Heresy,^  has  laid 
down  the  lines  of  truth  on  this  subject.  There  was 
in  Colossse  a  cult  that  was  a  mixture  of  Greek  philos- 
ophy and  Essenic  teaching.  The  Essenic  doctrine  had 
already  incorporated  some  Persian  and  Greek  ideas. 
It  was  a  time  of  philosophic  syncretism.  The  Essenes, 
of  course,  had  their  home  in  the  wilderness  of  Judea, 
but  their  influence  went  beyond  that  region.  Some 
travelling  Jewish  teachers  had  probably  picked  up 
these  mystic  ideas  about  God,  matter,  angels,  morals, 
before  they  came  to  Colossse.     Here  they  fell  under  the 

*  "  Judaistic  Christianity,"  pp.  116-129. 
'  "Commentary  on  Colossians." 


282  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

spell  of  Christian  teaching.  What  they  did  was  to  in- 
corporate the  chief  Christian  doctrines  into  their  phi- 
losophy and  seek  to  propagate  the  result  as  the  true 
philosophical  gospel.  The  peril  of  that  situation 
Paul  was  quick  to  see.  Hence  this  eager  and  powerful 
Epistle  to  open  the  eyes  of  the  Colossian  Christians 
to  the  subtle  danger  confronting  them. 

The  main  outlines  of  this  incipient  Gnostic  philoso- 
phy can  be  drawn  from  Paul's  condemnation  of  it  in 
the  Epistle  and  from  the  well-known  later  develop- 
ments. Similar  forms  of  teaching  are  condemned  in  the 
Pastoral  Epistles  of  Paul  and  in  the  Epistles  of  John 
and  possibly  also  in  the  Apocalypse.  The  new  teach- 
ers had  a  theory  of  the  universe  which  considered 
matter  essentially  evil  while  God  is  good.  Their  philo- 
sophical problem  was  how  the  good  God  could  have 
created  evil  matter  without  responsibility  and  contam- 
ination. Hence  they  imagined  a  series  of  inter- 
mediate agencies  called  aeons  that  came  in  between 
God  and  the  creation  of  matter.  Each  one  in  the 
series  was  further  away  from  God  till  the  last  one  was 
far  enough  from  God  to  cause  no  contamination  to 
the  deity  and  yet  near  enough  to  God  to  have  power 
to  create  matter.  This  curious  theory  of  the  origin 
of  matter  and  evil  satisfied  some  minds.  One  may 
remark  in  passing  that  no  one  has  yet  presented  an 
adequate  explanation  of  the  origin  of  evil.  But  cer- 
tainly this  theory  of  the  essentially  evil  character  of 
matter  is  wrong.     Hence  the   Gnostic  Christians  at 


PAUL  AT  BAY  283 

once  had  trouble  with  the  person  of  Christ.  Where 
did  he  come  in  ?  Was  he  above  these  aeons  or  merely 
one  of  them  ?  They  seem  to  have  put  him  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  list.  So  Paul  is  contradicting  this  theory 
when  he  insists  on  the  primacy  of  Christ  in  his  relation 
to  God  whose  very  image  he  is  (Col.  1  :  15-17).  "He 
is  before  all  things,"  aeons  included,  if  there  are  any. 

In  the  practical  working  out  of  the  theory  about 
the  nature  of  Christ  the  Gnostics  fell  into  two  wings. 
One  view  was  that  Jesus  only  seemed  to  be  a  man. 
In  reality  he  had  no  human  body  (cf .  modern  theosoph- 
ical  theories  popular  in  some  quarters).  These  were 
called  Docetic  Gnostics,  as  Ignatius  makes  clear. 
Hence  Paul  speaks  of  the  "blood  of  his  cross"  (1 :  20), 
"body  of  his  flesh"  (1:22),  and  remarks  that  "in 
him  dwelleth  all  the  fulness  of  the  Godhead  bodily" 
(2:9).  The  other  type  of  Gnostics,  called  later 
Cerinthian  Gnostics  from  Cerinthus,  held  that  Jesus 
was  a  mere  man,  but  that  the  divine  Christ  (aeon)  came 
upon  him  at  his  baptism  in  the  form  of  a  dove  and  left 
him  on  the  cross  when  Jesus  felt  himself  deserted. 
Paul  seems  to  have  this  view  in  mind  when  he  insists 
on  "Christ  Jesus  the  Lord"  (2:6)  as  the  one  whom 
they  received  and  in  whom  they  are  to  walk. 

Paul  sums  up  "all  the  fulness  of  the  Godhead"  in 
Jesus  Christ  (1:19:  2:9).  It  was  not  distributed 
in  a  series  of  aeons.  "Fulness"  was  one  of  the  fa- 
vorite Gnostic  terms.  Jesus  was  head  over  the  physical 
universe  (1 :  15-17)  and  the  spiritual  body  or  church 


284  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

general  (1 :  18),  "that  in  all  things  he  might  have  the 
preeminence."  Hence  he  is  to  be  **the  Head"  (2  :  19) 
for  all  believers.  So  angels  are  not  to  be  worshipped 
(2 :  18).  No  false  philosophy  can  take  the  place  of 
"the  mystery  of  God,  even  Christ,  in  whom  are  all  the 
treasures  of  wisdom  and  knowledge  hidden"  (2:2  f.). 
In  answer,  therefore,  to  the  Gnostic  debasement  of 
Jesus,  Paul  expounds  the  dignity  and  glory  of  the 
person  of  Jesus.  He  does  not  here  use  the  term  God, 
but  he  describes  him  in  language  which  leaves  no  other 
alternative  possible  as  to  his  real  meaning.  Just  as 
the  Judaizing  controversy  developed  clearly  and  fully 
Paul's  position  about  faith  and  works,  so  the  Gnostic 
controversy  was  the  occasion  for  the  richer  exposition 
of  the  person  of  Christ.  It  is  easy  to  see  how  the  deity 
of  Christ  is  no  new  idea  with  Paul.  The  roots  of  it  go 
back  to  the  vision  of  Jesus  on  the  road  to  Damascus, 
and  he  shows  it  at  many  points  previous  to  this  Epistle. 
But  here  the  cross  of  Christ  stands  out,  not  against 
Pharisaic  legalism  as  in  the  four  great  doctrinal  Epistles, 
but  against  the  bondage  of  false  philosophy  (2 :  13-16.) 
In  practical  life  also  the  Gnostics  divided.  Some 
took  the  ascetic  turn.  Since  matter  was  evil,  they  would 
separate  themselves  from  life  around  them  by  external 
renunciation  and  self-imposed  regulations  for  the  abuse 
of  the  body  (2 :  20-23).  But  this  plan  was  a  failure. 
Mere  asceticism  is  of  no  avail  against  the  indulgence 
of  the  flesh.  The  other  party  went  to  the  extreme  of 
license  and  argued  that  evil  could  not  be  kept  from  the 


PAUL  AT  BAY  285 

body,  which  was  itself  evil.  The  soul,  however,  could 
be  kept  pure  in  spite  of  the  sinful  indulgences  of  the 
body.  The  soul  alone  was  worth  while.  Let  the  body 
have  Ucense  in  its  indulgences.  Against  this  low  view 
of  life  Paul  sets  the  ideal  of  life  in  Christ  and  urges  a 
fight  to  the  death  on  the  sins  of  the  body,  putting  off 
the  old  man  with  his  doings  and  putting  on  the  new 
man  with  the  new  heart  and  the  new  hfe  (3 : 1-17). 
It  is  a  noble  appeal  that  Paul  makes,  and  he  applies  it 
to  the  various  cla  ses  of  the  time.  He  sees  the  social 
side  of  Christian  endeaVor  and  carefully  explains  how 
each  section  of  society  may  meet  its  specific  diflSculty 
in  the  spirit  of  Christ. 

17.  A  General  Appeal  to  the  Churches  of  Asia:  The 
Epistle  to  the  Ephesians. — Paul  seemed  to  feel  so  strongly 
the  importance  of  vigorous  treatment  of  the  new  heresy 
that  he  sent  another  letter  along  at  the  same  time 
which  he  wished  passed  around  among  the  churches 
(Col.  4 :  16).  A  natural  inquiry  is  raised  as  to  the 
fate  of  this  Epistle  to  the  Laodiceans.  Curiously 
enough  the  words  "at  Ephesus"  (Eph.  1:1)  are  want- 
ing in  the  oldest  Greek  mss.  Marcion  actually  calls  the 
Epistle  known  to  us  as  that  to  the  Ephesians  the  Epistle 
to  the  Laodiceans.  There  are  no  personal  greetings 
as  one  would  expect  (cf.  Col.  4 :  10-17)  in  a  letter  to 
Ephesus,  where  Paul  labored  three  years.  The  whole 
tone  of  the  Epistle  is  that  of  a  circular  letter.  The  term 
church  throughout  has  the  general,  not  the  local, 
sense  and  is  synonymous  here  with  "body"  (1 :  22  f.). 


286  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

"one  new  man"  both  Jew  and  Gentile  (2  :  15),  "one 
body"  of  both  (2:16),  "commonwealth  of  Israel" 
(2:12,  19),  "household  of  God"  (2:19),  "a  holy 
temple  in  the  Lord"  (2 :  21),  the  bride  of  Christ  (5 :  23). 
He  seems  to  have  in  mind  the  Christians  of  Asia  as  a 
whole,  both  Jew  and  Greek  (cf.  1  Peter  1  :1;  2:4). 
One  may  suppose  either  that  several  copies  were  made 
with  a  blank  left  for  the  name  of  this  church  or  that,  as 
the  one  copy  was  passed  around  from  church  to  church, 
other  copies  were  made.  One  came  to  Ephesus, 
the  capital  city  of  the  province  of  Asia,  and  that  copy 
naturally  is  the  one  preserved  to  us.^ 

This  general  appeal  of  Paul  against  the  Gnostic 
heresy  well  illustrates  his  interest  in  the  Kingdom  of 
God.  He  is  still  the  ecclesiastical  statesman,  though  a 
prisoner  at  Rome.  He  is  as  yet  debarred  from  going 
to  Spain,  but  he  is  eager  to  conserve  the  cause  in  the 
East.  These  two  Epistles  (Colossians  and  Ephesians) 
challenge  comparison  at  once.  They  were  sent  at  the 
same  time,  but  obviously  Colossians  was  composed 
before  Ephesians  as  the  one  that  directly  called  forth 
the  discussion  of  the  Colossian  heresy.  As  has  often 
been  pointed  out,  there  is  much  the  same  relation  in 
manner  of  treatment  between  Colossians  and  Ephe- 
sians that  we  see  between  Galatians  and  Romans 
The  specific  treatment  precedes  the  general  discussion. 
Hence  in  Ephesians  there  is  less  warmth  than  in  Co- 

*  Two  new  commentaries  on  Ephesians  are  worth  mentioning: 
Westcott  (posthumous)  in  1906,  and  Robinson  in  1907. 


PAUL  AT  BAY  287 

lossians.  The  subject  is  handled  with  less  passion,  but 
with  more  intellectual  grasp.  The  heights  and  depths 
of  the  spiritual  interpretation  of  life  are  touched  in 
Eph.  1-3,  the  most  profound  passage  in  all  Christian 
literature. 

In  Colossians  Paul  was  anxious  to  exalt  Christ  to  his 
true  position  of  dignity  and  power.  In  Ephesians  he 
rather  assumes  that  place  for  Christ  and  unfolds  the  cor- 
responding dignity  of  the  body  of  Christ,  the  church, 
his  bride.  Here  the  doctrine  of  election  is  treated 
(1  : 3-14),  not  as  needing  defence  by  reason  of  the 
failure  of  the  Jews  to  respond  to  the  gospel  message 
(Rom.  9-11),  but  rather  as  an  exhibition  of  the  love 
of  God  to  both  Jew  and  Greek.  Two  great  prayers 
glorify  this  Epistle  (1  :  15-23;  3:14-21)  that  sound 
the  depths  of  profound  emotion  and  scale  the  heavenly 
places  in  noble  aspiration.*  Chapter  2  is  Paul's  best 
exposition  of  the  breaking  down  by  Christ  of  the  middle 
wall  of  partition  between  Jew  and  Gentile.  He  is  here 
not  defending  the  right  of  the  Gentile  to  equal  terms 
with  the  Jew  in  Christianity  (Galatians  and  Romans). 
He  is  the  rather  reminding  the  Gentiles  of  their  glorious 
privilege,  made  possible  by  Christ,  and  urging  them  to 
be  worthy  of  membership  in  the  body  of  which  Christ 
is  Head.  He  is  jealous  that  Gentiles  shall  prove 
worthy  of  their  new  position. 

The  fuller  discussion  of  the  Christian  life  in  its 
private  and  social  aspects  in  Ephesians  grows  naturally 
'  Cf.  Stalker,  "The  Life  of  St.  Paul,"  p.  103. 


288  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

out  of  this  broad  and  exalted  conception  of  the  Chris- 
tian's connection  with  Christ.  The  exalted  Head  calls 
for  an  exalted  body.  This  intimate  relation  between 
the  redeemed  and  Christ  reaches  the  height  of  nobility 
in  the  discussion  in  5 :  22-33.  One  cannot  forbear 
remarking  how  pertinent  is  the  detailed  discussion  of 
the  Roman  armor  in  6  :  10-20.  Paul  surely  had  ample 
opportunity  to  become  familiar  with  every  piece  of 
that  armor  as  he  watched  the  soldier  to  whom  he  was 
chained. 

If  Paul's  prison  life  in  Rome  had  done  nothing  for 
the  world  save  give  it  the  Epistles  to  the  Colossians  and 
Ephesians  it  would  have  been  more  than  worth  while. 
The  heat  and  burden  of  a  busy  life  are  now  behind  him. 
The  sun  has  turned  toward  the  west  with  him.  He 
is  an  old  man,  but  not  a  broken  man.  If  there  is  less 
fire  than  in  the  four  great  Epistles,  as  they  are  called, 
there  is  equal  light  here,  if  not  more.  Clearly,  Paul  is 
now  more  serene,  more  restful  in  spirit,  more  tender, 
more  spiritual  in  his  insight.  It  is  a  normal  develop- 
ment to  which  he  has  come.  He  will  never  go  back 
to  the  stormy  time  of  I  Corinthians,  II  Corinthians,  and 
Galatians.  "The  greatness  of  the  Church  and  the 
divine  glory  of  Christ  fill  Paul's  prison  meditations."^ 
He  has  not  merely  rounded  out  his  doctrine.  He  has 
finished  the  pyramid.  Jesus  Christ  is  all  and  in  all  with 
Paul  (Col.  3:11).  Christ  is  for  all  men  and  all  men  are 
for  Christ.  There  is  a  greater  Kingdom  in  the  world 
»  Findlay,  Art.  Paul  in  Hastings'  "D.  B." 


PAUL  AT  BAY  289 

than  that  of  Rome.  Even  in  Rome,  indeed  partly 
because  in  Rome,  Paul  sees  the  splendor  and  glory 
of  that  Kingdom,  the  true  imperium,  that  shall  gather 
into  its  sweep  men  of'the  whole  earth.  In  fact,  that  in 
one  sense  had  already  come  true  (Col.  1:6).  Paul  is 
loved  everywhere  and  his  authority  is  acknowledged 
everywhere.  No  church  now  resists  his  word  or  will. 
He  is  now,  in  reality,  the  Apostle  of  the  whole  world. 
He  has  no  apology  to  make  for  his  chains,  but  he  is 
humble  and  asks  the  prayers  of  all  Christians  that  he 
may  be  a  better  preacher  of  the  mystery  of  the  Gospel 
(6  :  19  f.).  He  is  anxious  for  other  doors  for  the  word 
(Col.  4 ;  3).  "As  Nero's  prisoner  at  Rome  and  Christ's 
bondsman  for  the  Gentiles,  St.  Paul  rose  to  the  full 
unassailable  height  of  his  doctrine  and  his  vocation,"^ 
He  speaks  with  the  power  of  Isaiah  and  the  sweetness 
of  David.  Love  for  the  whole  world  lights  up  his  eyes. 
His  face  shines  like  that  of  Moses  coming  down  the 
Mount.  He  has  been  often  looking  at  the  face  of 
Christ. 

» Findlay,  Art.  Paul  in  Hastings'  "D.  B." 


CHAPTER  XI 

PAUL  FREE  AGAIN 

"  I  exhort,  therefore,  first  of  all,  that  supplication,  prayers, 
intercessions,  thanksgivings,  be  made  for  all  men;  for 
kings  and  all  that  are  in  high  place;  that  we  may  lead 
a  quiet  and  tranquil  life  in  all  godliness  and  gravity" 
(1  Tim.  2 :  1  f). 

1.  The  Oidcome  of  the  Trial. — One  is  at  liberty  to 
suppose  that  Agrippa  and  Festus  may  have  made  on 
the  whole  a  favorable  report  to  Rome  concerning 
Paul.  Julius  may  have  recommended  consideration 
also.*  But,  while  Paul  waited  the  humor  of  the 
fickle  Nero,  the  years  drew  on.  We  miss  the  master 
hand  of  Luke  in  the  description  of  this  trial  before 
Nero  (or  the  Praetorian  Prefect)  as  we  have  it  in  the 
trials  at  Jerusalem  and  Csesarea.  To  me  this  very 
absence  argues  for  dating  the  conclusion  of  Acts  before 
the  trial  came  off.  The  presumption  in  Acts  points 
to  Paul's  acquittal  since  neither  Felix  nor  Festus  had 
been  able  to  find  a  charge  against  him  that  would  stand 
in  Roman  law.  Besides,  Paul  himself  confidently  ex- 
pects to  be  set  free  (Phil.  1  :25;  Philem.  22).  It  is 
more  than  doubtful  if  any  capital  charge  was  presented 

'  Stalker,  "The  Life  of  St.  Paul,"  p.  157. 
290 


PAUL  FREE  AGAIN  291 

against  him.  But  we  cannot  assume  that  he  was 
simply  set  free  without  investigation  or  trial.  As  be- 
fore in  Caesarea,  Paul  probably  made  his  own  plea. 
Did  his  enemies  repeat  the  same  charges  made  to  Felix 
and  Festus  ?  If  so,  they  failed  as  before  in  spite  of  the 
injfluence  of  Poppaea  who  would  be  open  to  the  appeal 
of  the  Jews  against  Paul.  There  were  already  be- 
lievers and  friends  of  Paul  both  in  the  Praetorian  Guard 
and  in  Caesar's  household.  Hence  he  was  not  without 
some  friends  on  the  inside  of  court  circles.  Perhaps 
Paul's  enemies  and  their  Roman  lawyer  bungled  their 
case  or  may  have  displeased  Nero  by  some  accident. 
Seneca,  indeed,  may  have  taken  a  momentary  interest 
in  the  matter  on  the  side  of  justice.  Paul  would  have 
Uttle  difficulty  in  showing  that  he  had  kept  within  the 
Roman  law  concerning  Judaism  as  a  religio  licita.  He 
could  cite  the  position  of  Gallio  at  Corinth.  As  the 
brother  of  Seneca,  that  decision  would  be  pertinent 
and  timely.  His  religion  was  the  true  Judaism.  At 
anv  rate,  he  was  set  free. 

There  is  a  considerable  amount  of  evidence  among 
early  Christian  writers  indicating  that  Paul  was  set 
free.  We  do  not  have  space  for  that  phase  of  the 
discussion  here.  Scholars  are  not  agreed  upon  it, 
but  the  balance  of  probability  distinctly  favors  his 
release.*  There  is  no  evidence  of  real  worth  against 
the  positive  witness  for  Paul's  release.    The  Pastoral 

*  See  Ellicott,  "Pastoral  Epistles";  Conybeare  and  Howson, 
Scribner's  ed.,  Vol.  II,  pp.  436  ff.;  Spitta,  "Urchristentum,"Bd.  I. 


292  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

Epistles  come  into  the  scale.  If  they  are  genuine,  as 
I  think,  they  settle  what  doubt  may  remain.  They  can- 
not be  fitted  into  Paul's  career  up  to  the  close  of  Acts. 
We  have  no  right  to  assume  that  his  life  and  work  closed 
with  the  end  of  Acts.  The  very  tone  and  temper  of 
these  Epistles  call  for  a  somewhat  later  time.  They 
fit  in  exactly  with  a  probable  picture  of  Paul's  closing 
days.  For  the  present,  therefore,  they  may  be  used 
as  conclusive  argument  for  Paul's  release  from  the 
first  Roman  imprisonment  and  as  material  for  the 
construction  of  the  closing  period  of  his  ministry. 
Sometime  during  A.D.  63,  therefore,  we  may  imagine 
Paul  as  free  from  chain  and  soldier.  Some  five  years  it 
had  taken  him  to  allay  the  storm  raised  that  day  in 
the  temple  at  Jerusalem. 

2.  The  Visit  to  the  East.— Before  Paul  went  to  Rome 
he  was  eager  to  go  on  to  Spain.  But  now,  after  five 
years,  new  problems  have  arisen  in  the  East.  He  is 
anxious  to  visit  Philippi  and  Colossse.  It  is  all  specu- 
lation, to  be  sure,  and  one  must  not  be  dogmatic,  but 
it  is  at  least  possible  to  think  that  Paul  carried  out  this 
last  purpose.  He  was  needed  in  the  East,  and  it  would 
cheer  him  to  revisit  the  scenes  of  his  former  labors. 
Refreshment  of  heart  would  come  to  him  after  the 
long  years  of  suffering  and  separation.  But  we  have 
absolutely  no  details  of  this  visit.  How  long  he  re- 
mained in  the  East  we  have  no  means  of  knowing. 

3.  The  Visit  to  Spain.— Clement  of  Rome  (cf. 
Phil.   4:3),  writing  to  Corinth  from  Rome  (ch.   5), 


PAUL  FREE  AGAIN  293 

expressly  says  that  Paul  "had  gone  to  the  limit  of  the 
West"  before  his  martyrdom.  That  could  only  mean 
Spain  from  the  Roman  point  of  view.  In  the  Canon  of 
Muratori  it  is  stated  that  Paul  went  to  Spain.  In  the 
spring  or  early  summer  of  A.D.  64  we  may  imagine 
Paul  at  last  in  Spain.  He  had  reached  the  goal  of  his 
ambition  after  much  tribulation.  He  had  some  fruit 
in  the  West  also.  One  may  pass  by  as  without  founda- 
tion the  late  tradition  that  Paul  went  on  to  Britain. 
He  was  probably  in  Spain  when  the  awful  catastrophe 
befell  Rome,  July  19,  A.D.  64. 

4.  The  Burning  of  Rome.— li  is  difficult  to  think 
that  Paul  would  have  escaped  if  he  had  been  in  Rome 
after  this  dreadful  event.  Indeed,  some  scholars 
think  that  both  Paul  and  Peter  fell  victims  in  A.D.  64 
to  the  fury  of  Nero  against  the  Christians.  But  I 
am  not  able  to  see  the  facts  in  that  hght.  The  whole 
world  knows  the  story  of  this  "mad  freak  of  the 
malicious  monster  who  then  wore  the  imperial  purple."* 
He  chose  to  lay  the  blame  of  his  deed  upon  the  Chris- 
tians, perhaps  brought  to  his  attention  by  the  trial  of 
Paul,  in  order  to  shield  himself  from  popular  wrath. 
The  heart  grows  sick  at  the  thought  of  the  horrible 
details  of  Nero's  persecution  of  Christians  in  Rome. 
Oil  was  poured  over  their  clothing  and  they  were  tied 
to  posts  or  trees  and  lighted  at  night  Hke  street  lamps, 
while  Nero  rode  furiously  around  in  his  chariot.  But 
the  point  about  this  charnel  house  of  crime  that  bears 
» Stalker,  "The  Life  of  St.  Paul,"  p.  164. 


294  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

directly  on  Paul  is  that  henceforth  he  would  be  a 
marked  man,  as  indeed  all  prominent  Christians  were. 
PauFs  release  had  virtually  given  Christianity  a  legal 
standing  in  Roman  law  as  a  form  of  Judaism.  But 
now  Nero  had  made  a  sharp  distinction  between 
Christians  and  Jews.  Christianity  was  now  religio 
Ulicita.  To  be  a  Christian  was  crime  enough  to  de- 
serve death  (I  Peter  4  :  16).  The  fashion  of  persecut- 
ing Christians  had  the  sanction  of  the  imperial  example 
and  command.  It  was  now  no  mere  popular  outburst 
in  a  distant  province  against  a  man  who  interfered 
with  established  custom  or  business  interests.  Sub- 
servient flatterers  and  hirelings  of  Nero  would  seek 
to  curry  his  favor,  while  this  spell  was  on  him,  by  in- 
forming against  important  Christians  or  delivering 
them  up  to  his  wrath.  Henceforth  there  was  no  safe 
spot  for  Paul  on  earth  nor  for  Peter  either.  John  did, 
for  the  present,  seem  to  escape  this  storm  of  persecution. 
But  with  Paul  it  is  merely  a  question  of  time  when  his 
Roman  enemies  will  get  hold  of  him.  He  had  escaped 
the  vengeance  of  Greek  and  Jewish  mobs,  of  Judaizers, 
of  the  Sanhedrin.  Where  can  he  turn  now  to  make 
a  stand  against  the  rage  of  Nero,  the  madcap  Emperor 
of  Rome? 

5.  The  Return  East  for  the  Last  Time. — One  is 
certain  that  Paul  would  not  go  by  Rome  when  he  left 
Spain.  He  may,  indeed,  have  remained  in  Spain  till 
66  when  the  first  fury  of  the  Roman  wild  beast  had 
subsided.     He  came  by   Crete  with  Titus  and  left 


PAUL  FREE  AGAIN  295 

him  there  (Tit.  1:5).  He  had  probably  had  his  inter- 
est in  the  island  aroused  at  the  time  of  the  voyage  to 
Rome  when  he  could  not  tarry.  He  came  also  to 
Miletus  and  probably  did  not  go  to  Ephesus  if  one  may 
judge  by  the  directions  given  to  Timothy  (I  Tim.  1  :  3). 
Paul  seems  to  have  left  Timothy  at  Miletus/  where  he 
left  Trophimus  sick  (II  Tim.  4 :  20).  Timothy,  there- 
fore, is  in  charge  at  Ephesus,  but  Paul  later  sends 
Tychicus  there  also  who  had  returned  to  Rome  (II 
Tim.  4  :  12).  Paul  touched  also  at  Troas  on  his  way 
(II  Tim.  4  :  13).  He  had  possibly  expected  to  come 
back  here  and  so  left  his  cloak  and  books  with  Carpus. 
He  was  on  his  way  to  Macedonia  (I  Tim.  1:3).  The 
Jewish  War  had  begun  in  A.D.  66.  Paul  would  be 
hated  by  the  Romans  not  merely  as  a  Christian,  but 
as  a  Jew. 

6.  PavTs  Concern  for  Timothy  and  the  Work  in 
Ephesus:  I  Timothy. — Paul  is  apparently  in  Mace- 
donia, and  it  is  probably  the  late  summer  or  early 
autumn  of  A.D.  67.  The  three  Pastoral  Epistles  seem 
to  come  fairly  close  together.  I  shalKnot  enter  into 
a  formal  defence  of  these  letters  as  Pauline.  They 
do  differ  in  style  from  the  other  groups  of  his  Epistles. 
Indeed,  all  four  groups  have  differences  of  style. 
Within  bounds  this  is  only  natural.  Style  is  not  merely 
the  mark  of  the  man,  though  that  is  true.  It  is  equally 
the  function  of  the  subject  and  ought  to  vary  with  the 
theme.    Moreover,  each  man's  style  changes  with  the 

» Cf.  Findlay,  in  Sabatier's  "The  Apostle  Paul,"  p.  366  f. 


296  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

shifting  periods  of  his  life.  Milton  and  Shakespeare, 
not  to  say  Tennyson,  are  good  illustrations  of  this 
variation  in  style.  The  severe  critics  of  the  Pastoral 
Epistles  admit  Pauline  elements  in  them.  The  Pauline 
strain  is  manifest  and  strong.  The  real  point  to  be 
faced  is  whether  the  facts  given  in  these  letters  can  be 
put  into  an  intelligible  scheme  of  Paul's  life  and  whether 
the  style  is  appropriate  to  him  at  the  close  of  his  career 
in  the  discussion  of  the  themes  embraced  in  the  letters. 
The  use  of  the  new  facts  here  brought  out  is  perfectly 
admissible,  as  already  shown.  The  style  is,  indeed, 
more  chastened,  less  vigorous,  more  discursive,  even 
less  orderly  than  that  of  Paul  in  his  earlier  Epistles. 
But  if  one  thinks  of  an  old  soldier  of  the  cross,  whose 
fire  has  somewhat  died  down,  who  is  counselling  young 
ministers  concerning  the  problems  that  confront  him, 
he  will  not  be  ready  to  say  that  the  reflective,  contempla- 
tive, personal  character  of  these  letters  is  not  natural. 
Paul  tells  why  he  wrote  to  Timothy.  It  is  to  im- 
press further  the  exhortation  given  concerning  his 
remaining  awhile  at  Ephesus  (I  Tim.  1:3).  Timothy 
seemed  to  have  been  at  this  time  a  travelling  evangelist 
(II  Tim.  4  : 5),  but  special  reasons  demanded  his 
staying  a  season  at  Ephesus.  We  can  form  some 
adequate  conception  of  Timothy's  career  so  far.  He 
was  with  Paul  most  of  the  time  during  the  second 
and  third  missionary  journeys,  went  with  him  to  Jeru- 
salem with  the  great  collection,  and  rejoined  him  in 
Rome.     He  was  one  of  the  most  faithful  of  all  of 


PAUL  FREE  AGAIN  297 

Paul's  helpers  and  gave  him  much  satisfaction.  He 
seems  not  to  have  had  robust  health.  The  church  at 
Ephesus  had  a  body  of  elders,  as  we  know,  but  Timo- 
thy was  sent  here  as  Paul's  special  representative  as 
Tychicus  was  later  (II  Tim.  4 :  12).  The  conditions 
which  Paul  foresaw  when  at  Miletus  years  before 
(Acts  20  :  29  ff.),  and  which  he  sought  to  rectify  in  the 
Epistles  to  the  Colossians  and  the  Ephesians,  still  de- 
manded attention.  "  Certain  men  "  at  Ephesus  (I  Tim. 
1 : 3)  were  preaching  a  "  different  doctrine,"  one  devoted 
to  "fables  and  endless  genealogies,"  the  same  mixture 
of  Jewish  Gnosticism.  The  result  was  simply  dispute, 
empty  talk,  violent  affirmation.  Paul  was  anxious 
that  Timothy  should  seek  to  rescue  the  church  from 
the  influence  of  this  barren  philosophizing.  It  was  a 
formidable  task  for  a  young  preacher  like  Timothy 
who  had  once  been  unsuccessful  in  the  troubles  at 
Corinth.  "  Let  no  man  despise  thy  youth "  (I  Tim. 
4 :  12),  Paul  exhorts  him.  He  will  need  wisdom  and 
firmness. 

Paul  writes  in  a  tone  of  sympathy  with  the  young 
preacher  and  his  problems.  He  himself  had  little  of 
that  in  the  beginning  of  his  ministry  save  the  fellowship 
of  Barnabas.  Paul  is  reminded  vividly  of  Christ's 
goodness  to  him  in  putting  him  into  that  ministry 
which  Timothy  now  adorns.  Paul  now  looks  back  over 
a  long  and  checkered  life  of  service  for  Christ.  He 
has  been  at  the  chariot  wheel  of  Christ  in  his  triumphal 
procession  both  as  captive  and  as  incense-bearer.     He 


298  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

has  had  prisons  oft  and  once  for  five  years,  but  he 
simply  and  frankly  thanks  Christ  Jesus  his  Lord  for 
calling  him  to  this  high  and  holy  work,  unworthy 
though  he  was  (I  Tim.  1  :  12-17).  That  spirit  in  the 
old  preacher  is  one  of  the  ways  of  securing  more  young 
men  for  the  ministry.  One  may  thank  God  for  the 
old  preacher,  full  of  years  and  of  wisdom,  who  is  able 
to  enrich  the  lives  of  younger  men.  Paul  is  ripe  with 
experience  and  grace  and  mellow  with  tender  love 
as  he  warns  and  exhorts  Timothy.  He  is,  indeed,  con- 
servative now,  as  old  men  normally  are,  but  he  is  not 
excessively  so.  His  interest  in  the  young  preachers 
about  him  is  one  of  the  ways  of  keeping  young  him- 
self. 

Paul  shows  a  keen  desire  that  Timothy  shall  fulfil 
the  promise  of  his  youth  (1  :  18),  for  others,  alas,  had 
made  shipwreck,  as  Hymeneus  and  Alexander.  He 
must  be  an  example  in  upright  living  (4 :  12),  a  con- 
stant student  (4  :  13),  for  here  many  fall  short,  diligent 
in  the  use  of  his  gift,  consecrated  so  as  not  to  fritter 
away  his  energies,  watchful  about  his  health  and  his 
piety,  that  his  progress  may  be  manifest  to  all  (4 :  14  f.). 
One  can  endure  much  in  a  young  preacher  if  he  is 
steadily  growing  in  knowledge  and  power.  He  will 
have  many  temptations  to  follow  after  money  and 
pleasure  (6 :  11).  Paul  concludes  with  a  passionate 
plea  for  Timothy  to  guard  the  deposit  which  he  has 
received,  to  be  faithful  to  his  trust  (6 :  20). 

But  there  is  more  than  this   intensely  interesting 


PAUL  FREE  AGAIN  299 

personal  strain  in  the  Epistle.  Though  directed  to 
Timothy  the  letter  was  evidently  intended  for  public 
use  also.  It  deals  with  church  problems  very  largely, 
such  as  the  qualifications  of  the  bishop  and  the  deacon, 
the  treatment  of  a  class  of  aged  widows,  the  conduct  of 
the  rich,  of  servants.  Social  problems  are  prominent 
in  the  church  life  of  the  time.  It  is  a  rather  more  ad- 
vanced type  of  church  life  that  confronts  us  here 
than  we  meet  in  the  Corinthian  Epistles,  but  not 
more  developed  than  one  need  expect  by  A.D.  67  in 
Ephesus. 

The  Apostle  is  anxious  about  the  future  of  Chris- 
tianity. He  sees  signs  of  heresy,  of  strife,  of  apostasy. 
But  prayer  and  faithful  preaching  will  meet  the  situa- 
tion. It  is  interesting  to  note  Paul's  generous  attitude 
toward  the  state  (2  : 1  ff.)  as  in  Rom.  13 : 1-7.  He 
cherishes  no  harsh  feelings.  He  sees  the  relation 
between  good  government  and  the  welfare  of  the  King- 
dom of  God.  He  asks  prayers  for  kings.  Not  yet 
has  the  state  everywhere  been  willing  to  allow  Chris- 
tians to  "lead  a  tranquil  and  quiet  life."  Paul 
had  felt  the  heavy  hand  of  an  oppressive  state  upon 
him.  The  shadows  were  gathering  fast  around  him 
now. 

7.  The  Cause  in  Crete:  The  Epistle  to  Titus. — 
Titus  came  into  fellowship  with  Paul  earlier  than 
Timothy.  He  appeared  at  Jerusalem  with  him  at 
the  conference  about  A.D.  50  (Gal.  2: 1,  3).  He  was 
Paul's  mainstay  in  the  Corinthian  troubles  (II  Cor. 


300  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

7 :  13  f.).  He  had  been  with  Paul  on  his  last  visit  to 
Crete  (Tit.  1:5).  He  will  be  with  him  again  at  Rome 
before  leaving  for  Dalmatia  (II  Tim.  4 :  10).  Like 
Timothy  (I  Tim.  1 : 2)  he  was  PauPs  own  true  child 
in  the  faith  (Tit.  1:4).  Paul  was  clearly  proud  of 
these  two  young  ministers  who  had  so  well  justified 
his  hopes  about  them. 

Paul  is  apparently  still  in  Macedonia  and  expects  to 
spend  the  winter  in  Nicopolis  (Tit.  3 :  12).  It  is 
probably  near  winter  (A.D.  67).  Zenas,  the  lawyer, 
and  ApoUos  are  possibly  the  bearers  of  the  letter 
(3 :  13).  Here  is  another  glimp  e  of  Apollos,  whose 
friendship  with  Paul  is  unshaken.  The  lawyer,  like 
Luke  the  physician,  is  a  Gentile,  it  seems.  Paul  is 
hoping  to  send  either  Artemas  or  Tychicus  to  Titus 
later  (3 :  12).  Thus  we  see  how  Paul  keeps  in  touch 
with  the  work  all  over  the  world.  He  has  friends  in 
Crete  who  love  him  (3  :  15).  Not  the  least  element  of 
power  in  Paul  is  his  vital  touch  with  men.  He  makes 
friends  and  keeps  them. 

Paul  shows  real  knowledge  of  the  local  conditions  and 
difficulties  of  the  work  in  Crete.  They  seem  to  have 
been  specially  susceptible  to  the  "vain  talkers  and  de- 
ceivers," especially  to  them  of  the  circumcision  (1 :  10). 
Here  we  seem  to  have  an  echo  of  the  old  Judaizing 
controversy.  The  Pharisaic  party  died  hard,  evidently, 
and  finally  drifted  into  a  definite  sect  called  Ebionites. 
But  Paul  is  positive  that  their  "  mouths  must  be  stopped" 
for  they  "overthrow    whole  houses,"    teaching    "for 


PAUL  FREE  AGAIN  301 

filthy  lucre's  sake."  Surely  they  were  the  lowest  type 
of  religious  demagogues.  But  they  had  success  in 
Crete.  Paul  is  not  surprised  at  this  since  one^  of  their 
own  prophets  (poets)  had  said: 

"Cretans  are  always  liars,  evil  beasts,  idle  glut- 
tons." 

It  was  severe,  but  Paul  indorsed  it.  Prof.  J. 
Rendal  Harris^  has  shown  that  the  reputation  of  the 
Cretans  as  liars  began  with  the  fact  that  they  claimed 
that  Zeus  was  dead  and  was  buried  on  their  island. 
The  recent  discoveries  of  Evans  ^  at  Knossos  have  shed 
a  flood  of  light  on  the  ancient  civilization  that  flourished 
here  far  back  in  the  Mycenaean  age  and  even  before 
that  time.  The  type  of  heresy  here  was  Jewish  (1  :  10, 
14),  but  may  have  had  Gnostic  elements  (1  :  16) 
mingled  with  Pharisaism.  Paul  urges  sharpness  (1  :  13) 
if  need  be. 

There  are  fewer  personal  exhortations  in  the  Epistle 
and  one  wonders  if  Titus  were  not  rather  older  than 
Timothy  as  well  as  more  vigorous.  He  is  in  particular 
to  avoid  wrangling  and  disputes  with  factious  men 
who  fight  about  the  law  (3 : 9  f.).  The  directions 
about  church  oflScers  and  social  problems  do  not  difi^er 
greatly  from  those  given  to  Timothy.  He  has  in  mind 
"rulers"  (3:1)  also,  and  is  as  anxious  for  uprightness 
of  life  as  for  orthodoxy  of  belief  (3:8).     In  general 

*  Epimenides,  sixth  cent.  B.C.,  an  oracular  (prophetic)  poet. 
"  Cf .  Expositor  for  1907. 

'  Cf.  excellent  summary  in  Burrows,  "The  Discoveries  in  Crete" 
(1907). 


302  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

the  position  of  Titus  in  Crete  seems  to  be  the  same  as 
that  of  Timothy  in  Asia,  a  sort  of  general  evangelist. 
Neither  of  these  Epistles  discusses  a  great  doctrine  at 
length,  though  Paul's  favorite  teachings  recur. 


CHAPTER  XII 

PAUL  FACES  DEATH 

"For  I  am  already  being  offered,  and  the  time  of  my 
departure  is  come.  I  have  fought  the  good  fight,  I 
have  finished  the  course,  I  have  kept  the  faith;  hence- 
forth there  is  laid  up  for  me  the  crown  of  righteousness 
which  the  Lord,  the  righteous  judge,  shall  give  me  at 
that  day"  (2  Tim.  4:6  ff.). 

1.  The  Arrest. — ^The  winter  came  on,  the  winter  of 
67  and  68.  Paul  had  left  Erastus  at  Corinth  on  the 
way  to  Nicopolis  (II  Tim.  4 :  20).  We  have  not  Luke's 
graphic  pen  to  describe  the  occasion  and  the  circum- 
stances of  this  second  arrest.  Probably  while  at  Ni- 
copolis during  the  winter  or  early  spring,  Paul  suddenly 
finds  himself  under  arrest  as  the  result  of  the  work  of 
some  informer  anxious  to  ingratiate  himself  into  the 
good  graces  of  Nero  and  his  favorites  whose  pastime 
was  now  the  persecution  of  the  Christians.  They 
had  grown  weary  of  mere  gladiatorial  shows.  The 
tortures  of  Christians,  men  and  maidens,  added  novelty 
to  the  blase  life  of  Rome.  His  very  nearness  to  Italy 
invited  the  attack  of  professional  informers.  Nicopolis, 
monument  of  the  victory  of  Octavius  at  Actium,  was 

a  good  place  for  such  men  to  gather. 

303 


304  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

2.  The  New  Charges. — We  are  justified  in  saying 
this  much.  The  trouble  in  Jerusalem  had  arisen  from 
the  Jews  as  a  protest  against  Paul's  work  in  its  bear- 
ing on  Judaism.  His  Jewish  enemies  had  tried  to  give 
an  imperial  turn  to  these  charges,  but  had  failed  both 
in  Csesarea  and  Rome  (before  both  provincial  and  im- 
perial courts).  But  Christians  could  not  now  find 
shelter  under  the  privileges  granted  to  Judaism  by 
Roman  law.  The  Christian  leader  was  now  assumed 
to  be,  i'pso  facto,  guilty  of  dark  and  dubious  practices. 
The  Jews  themselves  were  not  in  good  standing  at 
Rome  now  that  the  war  in  Judea  was  raging.  It 
may  be  inferred  logically,  therefore,  that  the  newly 
invented  charges  against  Paul  had  to  do  with  the 
Roman  state  and  in  particular  with  the  burning  of 
Rome.  That  accusation  was  still  doing  duty  whenever 
it  was  needed  against  a  Christian.  It  was  a  matter  of 
pubHc  knowledge  that  Paul  had  been  in  Rome  not 
long  before  the  burning  of  Rome.  It  would  be  easy 
to  charge  that  his  departure  was  only  temporary, 
that  he  had  returned,  that  he  was  resentful  because  of 
his  long  imprisonment,  that  he  was  in  truth  a  ringleader 
of  the  whole  affair,  that  he  had  since  been  hiding  in 
distant  parts  of  the  empire.  It  would  be  easy  also  to 
add  to  this  accusation  charges  of  disloyalty  against 
the  Emperor  because  of  his  language  about  Jesus  as 
King  as  at  Thessalonica  (Acts  17:7).  The  pathos 
of  the  situation  lies  partly  in  the  fact  that  he  was  at 
this  very  time  urging  prayer  for  kings  and  all  in  au- 


PAUL  FACES  DEATH  305 

thority  (I  Tim.  2:1),  and  urging  obedience  and  orderly 
behavior  on  the  part  of  all  Christians  (Tit.  3:1). 
It  was  just  as  it  had  been  in  his  worship  in  the  temple 
at  Jerusalem  when  arrested  before.  Paul  must  now 
confront  not  a  mob,  either  Greek  or  Jewish.  He  had 
learned  how  to  escape  them  by  the  help  of  God.  He 
was  not  to  confront  the  Jewish  Sanhedrin  whose  re- 
finements in  theology  he  well  knew.  He  was  not  to 
appear  before  cowardly  provincial  governors  who  did 
not  dare  do  what  they  knew  was  right.  He  was  not, 
indeed,  to  face  Roman  law  at  all  in  its  free  exercise. 
He  would  not  probably  appear  before  Nero  in  person, 
but  before  the  City  Prefect,  who  would  merely  register 
the  known  desire  of  Nero  about  Christians.  Certain 
forms  of  law  would  be  observed,  but  the  wheels  of  the 
law  would  grind  out  condemnation. 

3.  The  Close  Confinement. — The  freedom  enjoyed 
during  the  first  imprisonment  is  all  gone.  He  is 
probably  thrown  into  the  Mamertine  Prison  or,  at 
any  rate,  is  under  close  military  custody  (II  Tim. 
1  :  16).  One  is  reminded  of  the  condition  of  John  the 
Baptist  in  the  prison  at  Machaerus  and  Paul's  own  fate 
in  the  inner  prison  at  Philippi  (Acts  16  :  24).  So  he 
is  back  in  Rome  again,  the  new  Rome  of  Nero's  mad 
revels  under  the  tutelage  of  Tigellinus.  Seneca  wrote 
philosophy  while  Nero  gave  full  rein  to  his  passions. 
There  is  no  relief  to  the  dark  picture  save  what  comes 
from  the  inward  light  of  the  spirit.  It  was,  indeed, 
"the  irony  of  human  life,"  for  Paul  to  be  in  the  hands 


306  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

of  a  man  who  was  "nothing  but  a  compound  of  mud 
and  blood."  ^ 

4.  The  Desertion  of  Paul's  Friends. — Not  many 
Christians  remained  in  Rome  at  a  time  like  this. 
Many  had  suffered  the  martyr's  death  for  Jesus. 
Others  had  left  the  city  and  probably  did  wisely  in 
doing  so.  Crescens  had  gone  to  Galatia,  perhaps, 
with  a  message  from  Paul,  and  likewise  Titus  to 
Dalmatia  (II  Tim.  4  :  10),  showing  that  his  work  in 
Crete  was  of  a  temporary  nature.  So  Paul  had  sent 
Tychicus  to  Ephesus  (II  Tim.  4  :  12).  Prisca  and 
Aquila  are  absent  in  the  East  with  Timothy  (II  Tim. 
4  :  19)  as  well  as  the  house  of  Onesiphorus.  Paul  is 
grateful  to  Onesiphorus,  "for  he  oft  refreshed  me  and 
was  not  ashamed  of  my  chain;  but,  when  he  was  in 
Rome,  he  sought  me  diligently  and  found  me"  (II  Tim. 
1  :  16  f.).  These  simple  words  tell  volumes  about  the 
difficulty  of  finding  Paul  now  and  the  danger  of  being 
known  as  his  friend.  In  his  former  imprisonment 
his  visitors  were  many  and  they  came  and  went  "un- 
hindered." It  was  an  honor  among  Christians  to  be 
in  the  list  of  Paul's  friends.  But  now  one  had  to 
consider  whether  he  was  willing  to  lose  his  life  for  the 
sake  of  seeing  the  Apostle  to  the  Gentiles.  He  could 
not  be  rescued.  He  might  be  comforted,  but  at  a  very 
high  price.  Onesiphorus  did  not  count  the  cost.  He 
had  his  reward  in  comforting  the  lonely  Apostle. 
Most  Christians  who  had  to  be  in  Rome  made  it  con- 
»  Stalker,  "The  Life  of  St.  Paul,"  p.  166. 


PAUL  FACES  DEATH  307 

venient,  so  it  seems,  to  be  ignorant  of  Paul's  where- 
abouts and  to  make  no  inquiries.  Some  remained 
and  were  loyal  to  Paul  (though  not  constantly  with 
him),  like  Eubulus,  Pudens,  Linus,  Claudia  and  "all 
the  brethren"  in  Rome  who  were  still  spared  by  Nero 
(II  Tim.  4  :21).  But  Demas  forsook  Paul,  "having 
loved  this  present  world,  and  went  to  Thessalonica" 
(II  Tim.  4  :  10).  He  suddenly  found  a  pressing  demand 
for  his  services  there  and  Paul  felt  the  desertion  keenly. 
5.  The  First  Stage  of  the  Trial. — ^This  has  already 
passed  when  he  writes  his  last  Epistle,  our  only  source 
of  information  for  this  closing  period  of  Paul's  life. 
The  less  serious  charge  apparently  came  first.  What 
it  was  we  do  not  know.  It  may  have  been  that  Chris- 
tianity was  a  religio  nova  et  illidta.  This  matter  was 
involved  in  his  former  appearance  at  the  bar  of  Nero. 
It  had  fallen  through  then  and  may  have  failed  now. 
We  know  the  name  of  one  of  the  accusers  at  this  first 
stage  of  Paul's  last  trial.  "Alexander  the  coppersmith 
did  me  much  evil"  (4  :  14).  He  may  have  been  the 
same  Alexander  who  at  Ephesus  (Acts  19  :  33)  sought 
to  clear  the  Jews  of  any  connection  with  Paul  and  his 
denunciation  of  Diana  and  her  temple.  The  name 
is  a  common  one.  But  if  he  is  the  same  man,  he  was 
doubtless  glad  of  his  chance  to  settle  his  account  with 
Paul  since  the  multitude  would  not  hear  him  that  day. 
His  resentment  was  of  long  standing  and  his  repre- 
sentations told  heavily  against  Paul.  Paul  warns 
Timothy  to  beware  of  him  if  he  ever  comes  his  way, 


308  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

"for  he  greatly  withstood  our  words"  (II  Tim.  4  :  15). 
He  seems  to  have  been  the  chief  spokesman  among 
the  accusers. 

It  seems  that  a  considerable  audience  was  present 
at  this  stage  of  the  trial  (4  :  17).  Paul  was  the  most 
famous  Christian  in  the  world.  Common  as  the  con- 
demnation of  Christians  had  come  to  be,  fresh  interest 
would  be  aroused  by  this  case.  When  Paul  came  to 
Rome  the  first  time,  he  was  met  by  a  delegation  of 
brethren  whose  coming  gave  him  courage.  Now  he 
looked  around  in  vain  for  any  one  to  take  his  part 
(4  :  16).  "All  forsook  me."  Had  Luke  failed  to  be 
present  on  that  day?  Paul  cannot  help  thinking  of 
all  the  peril  that  he  has  risked  for  other  Christians. 
It  does  seem  a  little  hard  now  to  be  left  alone  in  the 
mouth  of  the  lion.  "May  it  not  be  laid  to  their  ac- 
count." 

But  he  had  help.  It  was  his  last  opportunity  to 
speak  the  message  of  eternal  life  to  all  the  Gentiles 
present.  "The  Lord  stood  by  me  and  strengthened 
me"  (4  :  17).  Was  it  a  vision?  Jesus  had  come  to 
his  side  at  Jerusalem  after  his  conversion,  when  the 
Jews  refused  to  hear  him,  at  Corinth  when  they  re- 
jected his  message,  at  Jerusalem  again  when  they 
clamored  for  his  blood.  Paul  had  turned  away  from 
all  his  former  friends  to  follow  Jesus.  Now  all  his 
Christian  friends  leave  him.  But  Jesus  does  not  leave 
Paul.  With  Jesus  at  his  side  he  cares  not  for  Nero, 
worse  than  a  Numidian  lion,  whose  hungry  mouth 


PAUL  FACES  DEATH  309 

was  ready  for  him  (4  :  17).  Paul  may  mean  that  as  a 
Roman  citizen  he  could  not  be  thrown  to  the  wild 
beasts.  He  was  acquitted,  therefore,  on  this  first  charge. 
But  it  was  only  a  matter  of  time  till  the  end  came. 

6.  The  Loneliness  of  Paul. — It  was  in  the  spring 
when  Paul  was  writing,  the  spring  of  68.  He  has 
passed  through  part  of  the  winter  or  early  spring  in 
the  dreary  Roman  prison.  He  has  missed  his  warm 
cloak  which  he  left  at  Troas  with  Carpus  (4  :  13)  on 
his  way  to  Macedonia  to  winter  at  Nicopolis.  He  does 
not  know  how  long  the  trial  will  be  drawn  out.  It 
may  last  till  the  next  winter,  and  so  he  urges  Timothy 
to  be  sure  to  come  to  Rome  before  winter  (4  :  21).  It 
makes  him  shudder  to  think  of  another  winter  without 
that  cloak. 

But  that  is  not  the  worst  of  it.  He  is  lonely.  "  Only 
Luke  is  with  me"  (4  :  11).  Thank  God  for  the  faithful 
physician  who  will  risk  all  for  his  patient  and  friend. 
There  is  no  complaint  of  Luke,  but  both  of  them 
hunger  for  the  fellowship  of  others.  Paul  makes  a 
direct  appeal  to  Timothy  to  come  to  him.  We  do  not 
know  where  Timothy  was  when  he  received  this  Second 
Epistle.  The  mention  of  Ephesus  (1  :  18;  4  :  12)  can 
be  argued  either  way.  He  may  have  left  Ephesus  by 
now  as  Titua  had  left  Crete.  The  presence  of  the 
house  of  Onesiphorus  and  of  Prisca  and  Aquila  with 
Timothy  may  argue  still  for  Ephesus  as  his  abode. 
But,  wherever  he  was,  we  may  be  sure  that  he  made 
all  "diligence  to  come  shortly"  to  Paul  (4:9).    There 


310  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

was  no  doubt  of  the  devotion  of  Timothy  to  the  grand 
old  hero  of  the  cross  in  the  Roman  prison.  Timothy 
would  risk  his  life  for  Paul.  It  seems  from  Heb. 
13  :  23  that  Timothy  did  come  and  was  put  into  prison. 
When  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  was  written  (probably 
A.D.  69,  just  before  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  and 
after  Paul's  death)  Timothy  has  been  set  free.  Whether 
he  came  before  Paul's  death  or  not  is  very  uncertain, 
since  the  end  came  long  before  the  oncoming  winter. 

It  is  a  pleasant  circumstance  to  note  that  Paul  singles 
out  Mark  (II  Tim.  4  :  11)  as  a  young  minister  who  can 
be  counted  on  to  be  true  in  this  time  of  trial.  He  has 
already  been  useful  to  Paul  for  ministering  and  has 
gotten  bravely  over  the  Perga  experience.  It  is  a 
good  thing  to  reflect  that  a  young  man  who  makes  a 
mistake  may  recover  his  ground.  It  is  high  tribute 
to  Mark  that  Paul  now  couples  his  name  with  that  of 
Timothy  as  one  who  will  stick  to  the  work,  who  will 
even  dare  the  wrath  of  Nero  to  do  so.  The  aged 
preacher  appeals  to  two  young  preachers  to  come  and 
stand  by  his  side.     That  was  a  call  to  stir  their  blood. 

Another  element  entered  into  Paul's  loneliness. 
He  had  left  most  of  his  books  and  parchments  at  Troas. 
He  was  busy  travelling  and  so  left  them  with  Carpus. 
He  is  in  prison  without  friends  (save  Luke)  and  with- 
out books.  That  is  a  pathetic  condition,  indeed,  and 
throws  a  keen  light  into  Paul's  nature,  his  love  of  books. 
He  not  merely  exhorted  Timothy  to  read.  He  had 
been  a  student  himself  as  well  as  the  writer  of  what 


PAUL  FACES  DEATH  311 

have  proved  to  be  the  greatest  letters  of  history.  Busy 
as  Paul's  life  had  been,  as  missionary  and  leader,  he 
had  not  forgotten  his  books.  Life  is  dreary  without 
his  books.  Pity  the  old  man  who  does  not  love  books. 
Other  friends  may  desert  you.  Good  books  stay  with 
you.  These  "parchments"  were  probably  portions 
of  the  Old  Testament  much  used  by  Paul  and  precious 
to  him.     He  may  have  made  notes  upon  them. 

7.  A  Last  Message  to  Timothy. — ^Paul  has  not  lost 
his  hold  upon  the  workers  nor  his  interest  in  the  work. 
He  has  sent  messengers  to  various  parts  of  the  world. 
By  one  of  these,  probably,  this  message  to  Timothy 
is  conveyed.  Greatly  as  Paul  is  concerned  about  his 
own  problems,  he  is  alert  and  eager  to  help  Timothy. 
He  hungers  for  sympathy,  but  he  bravely  puts  heart 
into  Timothy's  plans.  He  reminds  his  "beloved  child" 
of  his  pious  ancestry  and  urges  him  to  be  worthy  of 
such  a  heritage  of  faith  (1:5).  From  a  babe  he  has 
known  the  Holy  Scriptures.  The  love  of  these  devoted 
teachers  should  inspire  Timothy  (3  :  14  f.)  to  loyalty 
to  the  Word  of  God.  Paul  begs  Timothy  to  kindle 
into  a  blaze  the  gift  of  God  which  he  has  (1:6).  God 
gave  a  spirit  of  courage  and  power  (1 : 7).  It  is  a 
noble  appeal  that  Paul  here  makes  for  bravery  on  the 
part  of  the  young  preacher.  Hardship  is  the  lot  to 
which  Paul  calls  him  in  ch.  2.  Remember  Jesus, 
remember  Paul  and  forget  hardship. 

Paul  is  ambitious  that  Timothy  may  be  an  expert 
teacher  of  the  Word  of  God  (2  :  15).     That  is  the  best 


312  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

way  to  meet  heresy.  Give  people  the  truth.  Dislodge 
error  by  the  "expulsive  power"  of  truth.  Timothy 
will  have  trouble  after  Paul  is  gone,  but  let  him  be 
true  to  Paul's  teaching  and  example  (3  :  10  f.).  "Out 
of  them  all  the  Lord  delivered  me."  But  how  can 
Paul  talk  so  now?  God  has  kept  him  to  a  good  old 
age  and  established  the  work  of  his  hands.  He  must 
go  some  time.  Nothing  that  can  now  happen  can 
undo  what  God  has  done.  Paul  is  not  a  pessimist 
as  he  warns  Timothy  against  heresy  and  heretics. 
"The  firm  foundation  of  God  standeth"  (2:19). 
Let  Timothy  preach  the  word  and  fulfil  his  ministry 
(4 : 2,  5).  That  is  his  part.  It  is  a  bugle  note  from 
the  old  warrior. 

8.  Paul's  Estimate  of  His  Own  Career. — He  is  the 
battle-scarred  veteran  of  many  conflicts  and  may  be 
allowed  to  say  a  word  about  himself.  It  is  a  brief 
word  and  is  sometimes  called  his  Swan-song  just  be- 
fore his  death.  Paul's  fight  is  over.  That  is  plain 
to  him  and  he  is  not  unwilling  for  Timothy  to  know 
it.  True,  he  may  linger  on  some  months  or  a  year  or 
so.  But  he  never  expects  to  have  his  freedom  again. 
He  remembers  the  five  years  of  his  former  imprison- 
ment and  knows  the  changed  conditions  of  his  present 
state.  He  has  run  his  course.  He  had  longed  to  do 
this  though  ready  to  die  if  need  be  years  before  (Acts 
20:24).  God  has  been  good  to  him.  His  work  is 
done.  He  has  no  regrets.  He  made  no  mistake  that 
day  when  he  turned  to  Jesus  on  the  road  to  Damascus. 


PAUL  FACES  DEATH  313 

He  stands  by  his  guns  as  he  falls  at  his  post,  and 
urges  those  that  remain  to  carry  on  the  fight.  Let 
us  to-day  hear  his  call.  There  is  no  sign  of  surrender, 
no  note  of  defeat.  He  is  calm  as  he  beholds  the  end. 
He  indulges  in  no  self-praise.  He  has  simply  carried 
his  load  to  the  end  of  the  journey.  That  is  all.  He 
has  been  preacher.  Apostle,  teacher,  and  he  is  not 
ashamed  (1:11  f.).  He  does  not  boast.  He  is  humble 
at  the  feet  of  the  Master.  He  exults  in  knowing  that 
he  has  kept  the  faith.  Of  this  he  is  proud.  He  has 
stood  against  Judaizer  and  Gnostic  to  preserve  the 
truth  of  the  gospel.  This  fact  is  a  solace  to  the  old 
preacher  whose  last  sermon  has  been  preached.  He 
has  never  been  disloyal  to  Christ. 

9.  He  Longs  for  Jesus. — ^Paul  does  not  doubt  Jesus, 
for  he  has  brought  life  and  immortality  to  light  through 
the  gospel  (H  Tim.  1  :  10).  If  there  is  one  thing  in  the 
world  about  which  Paul  can  speak  with  authority  it 
is  fellowship  with  Jesus.  "I  know  him  whom  I  have 
believed"  (1  :  12).  In  the  last  analysis  this  is  the 
fundamental  apologetic,  knowledge  of  Jesus.  Nothing 
can  rob  Paul  of  this.  He  knows  Christ  by  a  blessed 
experience  of  thirty  years  or  more.  He  has  the  full 
persuasion  that  Jesus  is  able  to  guard  that  which  he 
has  committed  unto  him  against  that  day  (1  :  12). 

Paul's  face  is  now  turned  toward  "that  day."  In- 
deed, he  is  "already  being  offered"  and  the  time  of  his 
departure  has  come  (4:6).  He  had  long  been  ready 
for  that  consummation  (Phil.  1  :  23).     At  last  he  is 


314  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

released  from  the  harness  like  the  faithful  horse  at  the 
end  of  the  day's  journey.  It  will  be  sweet  to  rest  from 
the  toil  and  strife,  but  he  is  glad  that  he  has  had  his 
share  of  the  work. 

It  is  futile  for  his  enemies  to  attack  him.  "The 
Lord  will  deliver  me  from  every  evil  work"  (4:18). 
He  does  not  mean  that  he  will  be  set  free  from  the 
charges  against  him.  Not  that,  but  something  better. 
Jesus  "will  save  me  unto  his  heavenly  Kingdom." 
There  his  enemies  will  not  come  and  cannot  harm  him. 
Paul  still  has  interest  in  earthly  affairs,  but  his  heart 
is  in  the  hills  on  high.  He  looks  away  to  the  mountains. 
His  feet  are  growing  restless  and  the  sun  is  setting  in 
the  west.     Jesus  is  beckoning  to  him  and  he  will  go. 

He  has  a  "crown  of  righteousness"  laid  up  for  him 
which  the  Lord  Jesus,  "the  righteous  judge,"  will  give 
him  at  that  day  (4:8).  It  matters  little  to  Paul  what 
the  decision  of  Nero  or  his  minions  may  be.  He  will 
appeal  this  time  to  the  Supreme  Judge,  to  the  Highest 
Court,  whose  decision  cannot  be  reversed.  This 
"righteous  judge"  will  give  him  his  crown.  That  will 
be  glory  for  Paul.  He  can  pass  by  with  indifference 
the  whim  of  Nero.  Let  him  do  his  worst.  Paul  is 
not  now  caring  for  Csesar's  judgment-seat.  Once 
Paul  had  said  that  his  aim  had  been  to  bring  every 
thought  into  subjection  to  Christ  (II  Cor.  10  : 5). 
Christ  is  living  in  Paul  (Gal.  2 :  20).  With  Christ  he 
is  content.  He  is  seeking  the  things  above  where  Christ 
is  (Col.  3:1).     He  moves  serenely  in  the  high,  clear 


PAUL  FACES  DEATH  315 

atmosphere  like  the  triumphant  eagle.  Re  is  going 
soon  to  be  at  home  with  the  Lord  (II  Cor.  5:8).  He 
will  "depart  and  be  with  Christ;  for  it  is  very  far 
better." 

10.  The  Condemnation. — ^The  end  came  sooner 
than  Paul  had  expected.  Nero's  own  star  suddenly 
set  in  gloom.  It  has  never  risen  again.  By  the  middle 
of  June  A.D.  68  Nero  was  dead  in  disgrace.  The 
common  tradition  is  that  Paul  was  put  to  death  be- 
fore Nero's  departure.  Hence  in  May  or  early  June 
we  must  suppose  that  Paul  met  the  long-foreseen  doom. 
If  Timothy  came  before  that  time  he  also  was  made  a 
prisoner  though  he  escaped  with  his  life  (Heb.  13  :  23). 
If  so,  Paul  had  the  comfort  of  Timothy's  fellowship 
awhile  at  least.  It  is  doubtful  if  Mark  was  able  to  come. 
But  Paul  may  have  had  another  look  at  his  books. 

If  Paul  was  accused  of  complicity  in  the  burning 
of  Rome,  summary  judgment  was  rendered.  As  a 
Roman  citizen,  he  was  spared  a  slow,  torturing  death. 
He  was  not  to  be  burned  or  to  go  to  the  lions.  But 
he  was  to  be  beheaded.  At  last  one  day  he  heard  the 
sentence  of  death  pronounced  upon  himself.  He  had 
faced  that  peril  many  times  before  (II  Cor.  1:9).  It 
is  now  a  reality.  He  is  to  follow  in  the  footsteps  of 
his  Master.  He  had  once  revolted  against  the  notion 
of  a  crucified  Messiah.  But  the  Cross  had  come  to 
be  Paul's  glory  (Gal.  6 :  14).  He  will  bear  his  own 
cross.  He  already  bears  the  brand-marks  of  Jesus 
(Gal.  G :  17). 


316  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

11.  Paul's  Death. — The  details  are  all  wanting. 
Tradition  supplies  only  a  few,  which  may  be  true  or 
not  The  story  is  that  Paul  was  beheaded  on  the 
Ostian  Road.  It  was  customary  for  criminals  of 
prominence  to  be  executed  several  miles  out  of  the  city 
so  as  to  avoid  the  crowds. 

We  may  picture  the  event  in  a  possible  manner. 
One  day  in  late  spring  or  early  June  the  executioners 
came  to  Paul's  dungeon  and  led  him  out  of  the  city. 
One  is  reminded  of  Jesus  as  he  bore  his  cross  along  his 
Via  Dolorosa.  Paul,  as  a  condemned  criminal,  would 
be  the  victim  of  the  rabble's  sport.  He  would  have  no 
defender.  We  do  not  know  if  Luke  was  with  Paul 
to  the  very  last.  We  may  at  least  hope  so.  If  he  could, 
he  would  surely  walk  along  as  near  Paul  as  would  be 
allowed.  But  no  band  of  Christians  followed  with  him 
now.  He  was  going  out  of  Rome  on  his  way  to  the 
true  Eternal  City.  He  knew  Rome  well,  but  his  eyes 
were  fixed  on  other  things.  Outside  the  city  the  busy, 
merry  life  of  the  time  went  on.  The  crowds  flowed 
into  town.  Some  were  going  out.  Paul  was  only  a 
criminal  going  to  be  beheaded.  Few,  if  any,  of  the 
crowds  about  would  know  or  care  anything  about  him. 
At  a  good  place  on  the  road  some  miles  out  the  exe- 
cutioners stopped.  The  block  was  laid  down.  Paul 
laid  his  head  upon  it.  The  sword  (or  axe)  was  raised. 
The  head  of  the  greatest  preacher  of  the  ages  rolled 
upon  the  ground.  Tradition  says  that  a  Roman 
"matron  named  Lucina  buried  the  body  of  St.  Paul 


PAUL  FACES  DEATH  317 

on  her  own  land,  beside  the  Ostian  Road."  *  Be  that 
as  it  may,  no  Christian  can  come  to  Rome,  especially 
by  the  Ostian  Road,  without  tender  thoughts  of  Paul, 
the  matchless  servant  of  Jesus. 

It  is  hard  to  leave  Paul  without  a  thought  of  Peter, 
whose  martyrdom  was  probably  at  Rome  and  may  have 
been  not  far  from  the  same  time.  Legend  has  been 
busy  with  that  event.  The  story  goes  that  Peter  was 
running  away  from  Rome  to  escape  death  and  was 
met  on  the  Appian  Way  by  Jesus.  He  fell  at  the  feet 
of  Jesus  and  asked,  "Domine,  quo  vadis?"  The 
Master  answered,  "Venio  iterum  crucifigi."  Stricken 
with  shame,  Peter  went  back  to  Rome  and  to  death. 
There  is  no  proof  for  that  story.  It  may  be  just  an 
echo  of  Peter's  real  denial  of  Jesus  and  of  Paul's  mar- 
tyrdom. But  the  time  was  full  of  change.  Paul  is 
dead.  Peter  is  dead.  Soon  Jerusalem  will  be  in  ruins. 
The  Temple  of  Jehovah  will  be  no  more.  But  the 
Kingdom  of  Jesus  has  girt  the  Mediterranean  Sea 
and  has  taken  root  all  over  the  Roman  Empire.  Paul 
lived  to  see  his  dream  of  a  world  enipire  for  Christ 
largely  realized.  He,  not  Peter,  is  the  spiritual  leader 
of  apostolic  Christianity.  Peter  fell  into  line  with 
Paul's  masterful  aggressiveness  and  rejoiced  in  the 
hand  of  God  that  was  laid  upon  the  great  interpreter 
of  Jesus. 

12.  A  Backward  Look. — One  hesitates  to  add  a 
word  more  about  Paul.  He  has  gone  to  be  with  his 
» Conybeare  and  Howson,  Scribner's  ed.,  Vol.  II,  p.  490. 


318  EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL 

Lord.  But  nearly  nineteen  centuries  have  rolled  by 
since  Paul  planted  the  gospel  in  the  Empire  of  Nero. 
His  name  to-day  is  the  great  name  in  Christian  history 
after  that  of  Jesus.  It  is  not  enough  to  say  that  he 
stood  at  the  source  of  Christianity  and  put  his  impress 
upon  it  in  the  formative  period.  That  is  quite  true, 
but  a  great  deal  more  is  true.  Real  Christianity  has 
never  gotten  away  from  Paul.  I  do  not  believe  that 
it  ever  will.  He  was  the  great  thinker  in  this  important 
era.  He  blazed  the  way  in  doctrine  and  in  life.  He 
caught  the  spirit  of  Jesus  and  breathed  that  spirit 
into  Gentile  Christianity.  The  uneasiness  of  Paul, 
expressed  in  his  Epistles  to  Timothy,  about  the  future 
of  Christianity  had  ample  justification.  The  time  did 
come  when  that  very  Romanism  which  he  had  «o  ad- 
mired in  some  of  its  phases  seized  upon  Christianity, 
mixed  it  with  the  Judaism  which  he  fought  and  rad- 
ically perverted  the  gospel  of  Christ.  The  Gnostic 
heresies  which  had  arisen  grew  in  power,  and  Mithra- 
ism  came  to  give  battle  to  Christianity  in  the  Roman 
Empire. 

But  however  far  men  have  at  times  wandered  away 
from  Christ,  the  Epistles  of  Paul  stand  as  beacon  lights 
to  call  them  back  to  Christ.  We  can  find  Christ 
more  easily  because  Paul  saw  him  so  clearly.  He 
will  help  the  modern  world  to  find  Jesus.  He  did  not 
wish  men  to  think  of  him.  His  highest  hope  is  realized 
when  men  turn  to  Jesus  with  heart  and  hope  because  of 
what  Paul  was  and  is. 


PAUL  FACES  DEATH  319 

The  theme  of  Paul  is  not  exhausted  in  this  present 
volume.  Books  about  Paul  will  continue  to  come  from 
the  press.  His  stature  grows  greater  with  the  years.  He 
is  foremost  as  theologian,  as  practical  missionary,  as 
constructive  statesman,  as  man  of  boundless  resource 
and  energy.  No  one  in  Christian  history  approaches 
him  in  these  respects.^ 

No  word  about  Paul  is  complete  that  does  not  lay 
stress  upon  his  mysticism.  John  gives  us  the  supreme 
picture  of  the  mystical  side  of  Jesus.  Paul  reveals 
his  own  mystical  relation  to  Christ.  John  writes  in  a 
calmer  tone,  while  Paul  loses  himself  in  the  abandon 
of  passionate  devotion  to  Christ  and  identification 
with  him.  Masterful  in  intellect,  mighty  in  endeavor, 
high  in  spirit,  rich  in  heart  was  Paul,  whose  winged 
words  to-day  challenge  the  world's  attention  and  call 
men  "to  know  the  love  of  Christ  that  passeth  knowl- 
edge" and  to  "be  filled  unto  all  the  fulness  of  God." 

^  Denney  ("Jesus  and  the  Gospel,"  1908,  p.  20)  justly  considers 
Paul  "the  most  important  figure  in  Christian  history."  Cf .  Deiss- 
mann,  The  Expositor,  March,  1909,  p.  215:  "Jesus  the  One,  Paul 
the  first  after  the  One,  the  first  in  the  One." 


A  BRIEF  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Commentaries  on  Paul's  Epistles  are  not  here  given.  The 
general  works  on  the  apostolic  period  are  likewise  omitted. 
Articles  in  the  cyclopaedias  are  passed  by  also.  Only  the  most 
important  books  and  articles  on  Paul  are  mentioned.  Various 
aspects  of  the  subject  are  kept  in  mind. 

Addis,  "Christianity  and  the  Roman  Empire"  (1902). 
Albrecht,  "Paulus  der  Apostel  Jesu  Christi"  (1903). 
Alexander,  "The  Christianity  of  St.  Paul." 
Anonymous,  "The  Fifth  Gospel.     The  Pauline  Interpretation  of 

Christ"  (1906). 
Aquelhon,  "L'homme  psychique  d'apres  Saint  Paul"  (1898). 
Arnold,  "St.  Paul  and  Protestantism"  (1897). 
Askwith,  "Destination  and  Date  of  Galatians." 
Bacon,  "The  Story  of  Paul"  (1904). 
Baethge,  "Die  paulinischen  Reden." 
Baldensperger,    "Die  messianisch-apokalyptischen   Hoflfnimgen 

des  Judenthums"  (1903). 
Ball,  "St.  Paul  and  the  Roman  Law"  (1901). 
Baring-Gould,  "A  Study  of  St.  Paul"  (1897). 
Baur,  "The  Apostle  Paul"  (1875). 
Beyschlag,  "Die  paulinische  Theodicee." 
Bird,  "Paul  of  Tarsus." 
Blair,  "The  Apostolic  Gospel"  (1896). 
Bousset,  "Der  Apostel  Paulus." 
Breitenstein,  "  Jesus  et  Paul  "  (1908). 
Bruce,  "St.  Paul's  Conception  of  Christianity"  (1898). 
Bruckner,    "Die    Entstehung   der    paulinischen    Christologie " 

(1903). 
Bruckner,  "Der  Apostel  als  Zeuge  wider  das  Christusbild  der 

Evangelien"  (Prot.  Monatsch.,  1906,  S.  352-364). 
Briickner,  "Zum  Thema  Jesus  und  Paulus"  (Neui.  Wiss.,  1906, 

S.  112  ff.). 
Burton,  "Chronology  of  St.  Paul's  Epistles." 
Burton,  "Records  and  Letters  of  the  Apostolic  Age"  (1900). 
Buss,  "Roman  Law  and  History  in  the  New  Testament"  (1901). 

321 


322  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Campbell,  "Paul  the  Mystic"  (1907). 

Chadwick,  "The  Social  Teaching  of  St.  Paul"  (1906). 

Chadwick,  "The  Pastoral  Teaching  of  St.  Paul"  (1907). 

Chase,  "Credibility  of  Acts"  (1902). 

Chrysostom,  "Homiliae  in  laudem  S.  Pauli,"  Opera,  Vol.  II,  ed. 
Montf. 

Clarke,  "The  Ideas  of  the  Apostle  Paul"  (1884). 

Clemen,  "Die  Chronologic  der  paulinischen  Briefe"  (1893). 

Clemen,  " Einheitlichkeit  der  paulinischen  Briefe"  (1894). 

Clemen,  "Paulus"  (1904). 

Cone,  "Paul  the  Man,  the  Missionary"  (1898). 

Conybeare  and  Howson,  "Life  and  Epistles  of  Paul"  (1894). 
Scribner's  edition. 

Corbitt,  "St.  Paul"  (1903). 

Curtius,  "Paulus  in  Athen." 

Dahne,  "Entwicklung  des  paulinischen  Lehrbegrififs "  (1851). 

Dalmer,  "Die  Erwahlung  Israels  nach  Paulus." 

Davidson,  "The  Stoic  Creed"  (1907). 

Deissmann,  "Bible  Studies"  (1901). 

Deissmann,  "New  Light  on  the  New  Testament"  (1907). 

Deissmann,  "Licht  vom  Osten"  (1908). 

Deissmann,  "Die  neutestamentliche  Formel  in  Christo"  (1892). 

Dess,  "  Ein  Beitrag  zur  Frage  nach  dem  Hellenismus  bei  Paulus 
2  Cor.  5:  1-10"  (1904). 

Dickie,  "The  Culture  of  the  Spiritual  Life.  Studies  in  the 
Teaching  of  Paul"  (1905). 

Dick,  "Der  schriftstellerische  Plural  bei  Paulus"  (1900). 

Dickson,  "St.  Paul's  Use  of  the  Terms  Flesh  and  Spirit"  (1883). 

Dill,  "Roman  Society  from  Nero  to  M.  Aurelius"  (1904). 

Dobschiitz,  "Probleme  des  apostolischen  Zeitalters"  (1904). 

Doellinger,  "The  Gentile  and  the  Jew  in  the  Courts  of  the  Tem- 
ple of  Christ"  (1862). 

Drescher,  "Das  Leben  Jesu  bei  Paulus"  (1900). 

Drummond,  "Relation  of  the  Apostolic  Age  to  the  Teaching  of 
Christ"  (1900). 

Du  Bose,  "The  Gospel  According  to  St.  Paul"  (1907). 

Dykes,  "The  Gospel  According  to  St.  Paul." 

Eadie,  "Paul  the  Preacher." 

Erbes,  "Die  Todestage  der  Apostel  Paulus  und  Petnis"  (1899). 

Ernesti,  "Ethik  des  Apostels  Paulus." 

Everett,  "The  Gospel  of  Paul"  (1893). 

Everling,  "Die paulinsche  Angelologie  und  Damonologie"  (1888). 

Fairbairn,  "Philosophy  of  the  Christian  Rehgion"  (1904). 

Farrar,  "Darkness  and  Dawn"  (1893). 

Farrar,  "Early  Days  of  Christianity"  (1882). 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  323 

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Peine,  "Jesus  Christus  und  Paulus"  (1902). 

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Perrero,  "Greatness  and  Decline  of  Rome"  (1908). 

Pindlay,  "Epistles  of  the  Apostle  Paul." 

Porbes,  "Pootsteps  of  St.  Paul  in  Rome"  (1899). 

Pouard,  "St.  Paul  and  His  Mission." 

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324  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

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BIBLIOGRAPHY  325 

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Ramsay,  "Luke  the  Physician  and  Other  Studies"  (1908). 
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326  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

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Resch,  "  Die  Verwandtschaf t  zwischen  den  paulinischen  Schrif ten 

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Robertson,  "Student's  Chronological  N.  T."  (1904). 
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Glaube  nach  Paulus"  (1902). 
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Jesu"  (1887). 
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(1907). 
Ruegg,  "  Der  Apostel  Paulus  und  sein  Zeugnis  von  Jesus  Christus 

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Sabatier,  "The  Apostle  Paul"  (1891). 
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Jesus"  (1906). 
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Schettler,  "Die  paulinische  Formel  'Durch  Christus'"  (1907). 
H.  Schmidt,  "Der  paulinische  Christus"  (1867). 
Schmidt,  "Die  paulinische  Christologie"  (1870). 
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INDEX   TO  SUBJECTS 


Acropolis 159 

Adeney 196 

Agahus 217 

Agnostic 2 

Agrippa  (See  Herod). 

Alexander. 307 

Ananias 47,  52  ff. 

Ananias,  High  Priest 241 

Andronicus 207 

Apocalyi)ses 28 

ApoUos 6,  175,  180, 187,  300 

Apphia 279 

Aquelhon 75 

Aquila 163, 175. 180,  207.  306 

Archippns 279 

Aristarchus  .  .  175, 185,  255,  274.  279 

Anniniiis 3 

Arnold.  Matthew 70 

Athenodorus 272 

Augustine 3. 45 

Bacon 46. 196 

Baring-Gould 58, 90 

Barnabas 95-140 

Baur 44.91 

Beyschlag 191 

Bousset 87 

Bruce 49 

BrQckner 87 

BrudeiB 60 

Burrows 301 

Calvin 3 

Campbell 92 

Canon  of  Muratori 293 

Cerinthus 282 

Cerinthian  (Gnosticism) 283 

Chadwick 168 

Chloe.. 175 

Claudia 307 

Claudius 163 

Claudius  Lysias 228  flf..  239  f. 

Clement 3 

Clement  (of  Rome) 292 

Colossian  Heresy 281 

Conybeare  and  Howson, 

116.146.241,256.261,291 

Crescens 306 

Crispus 166 

Deissmann 92, 167,  319  James 81,  105,  128  fif.,  135 

Demas 279,307  Jerusalem  Conference 141  ff. 

Demetrius 184  Jesus 39  ff, 

Denney 319  John 128  ff.,  179 

329 


Docetic  (Gnosticism) 283 

D'Ooge 159 

Drescher 75 

Ebionites 300 

Ellicott 291 

Elymas 107 

Epsenetus 207 

Epaphras 279 

Epaphroditus 276 

Epicurean 2 

Epicurus 158  f . 

Epimenides 301 

Erastus 175, 198,  208, 303 

Essenism 281 

Eubulus 307 

Evans 301 

Feine 88 

Felix 240  f. 

Festua 10,  246  ff. 

Findley.  .49,  125,  153,  170,  176,  191, 

192,  198,  211,  288,  289,  295 

Fraedlaender 71, 73 

Gains 175,185.208 

Galatia  (South  and  North), 

143  ff.,  201  ff. 

GalUo 165 

Gamaliel 14  ff.,  26,  27 

Gardner 51 

Gnostic 2 

Gnosticism 281  ff.,  297 

Goguel 88 

Hamack ? 72, 87 

Harris,  J.  Rendel 301 

Hastings 11,  etc. 

Hausrath 196 

Hellenism 22,  32,  71  ff. 

Hellenist 7 

Herod  Agrippa  1 10, 105 

Herod  Agrippa  II 249  ff. 

Hicks 72 

Hilgenfeld 69, 71 

Hillel 16 

Holsten 65 

Holtzmann 74 

Hort 207, 209,  274,  281 


330 


INDEX 


Judaiaers 2  f.,  5, 121  ff.,  220  ff. 

Judas 53  f ..  132  f . 

Julicher 76, 87 

Junias 207 

Kaftan 87 

Kennedy,  H.  A 26.  67,  72 

Kennedy,  J.  H 196 

KlSpper 196 

Knowling 88 

Kohler 67.  71,  73,  74 

Kolbing 88 

Konig 196 

Lightfoot 272. 281 

Linus 307 

Lock 1 

Loman 65 

Lowell 50 

Lucina 316 

Luke 4,  10,  112,  145  fif.,  198, 

215  ff.,  255,  264,  274,  279,  316 
Lydia 148 

Manael 72 

Marcion 285 

Mark 109  ff.,  140  f.,  279,  310 

Mary 207 

Matneson 90 

McGififert 196 

Means 69,  70,  75,  76 

Meyer,  A 88 

Milligan 167 

Miracles 42f. 

Mnason 219 

Moffatt 88 

Moinmsen 267 

Monteil 88 

Moulton 183,  236 

Neander 60 

Nero 6,  271  ff..  293  f.,  315  ff. 

Nymphas 279 

Onesimus 279 

Onesiphorus 306 

Origen 3 

Paul:  Appreciation  of,  1;  An- 
cestry, 6;  Family,  7;  Date  of 
Birth,  9;  Boyhood,  12;  At 
the  Feet  of  Gamaliel,  15;  Ele- 
ments in  Education,  21;  First 
Taste  of  Blood,  25;  Leader- 
ship in  the  Persecution,  29; 
Connection  with  the  Sanhe- 
drin,33;  Fight  to  a  Finish,  35; 
Challenge  by  Jesus,  39;  Quan- 
dary of  Saul,  45;  Personal 
Issue  with  Jesus,  46;  Surren- 
der of  Saul,  48;  Temporary 
Darkness,  51;  Appeal  to 
Ananias,  52;  Call  to  a 
World  Mission,  55;  Immedi- 
ate Response,  60;  Apologetic 
Value  of  His  Conversion,  62; 
Hia  Jewish  Inheritance,  67; 


His  Greek  Inheritance,  71; 
Original  Christian  Inherit- 
ance. 74;  Years  in  Arabia, 
76;  In  Damascus  Again.  78; 
In  Jerusalem  with  Cephas, 
79;  Back  in  Tarsus,  83;  In- 
terpreter of  Jesus,  85;  Emer- 
gency at  Antioch,  93;  Gen- 
tile Church  at  Antioch,  95; 
Insight  of  Barnabas,  97;  The 
Man  and  the  Hour,  98;  Year 
at  Antioch,  99;  Mission  to 
Jerusalem,  100;  Call  to  a 
World  Campaign,  103;  Ac- 
quiescence of  the  Antioch 
Church,  104;  Leadership  of 
Barnabas,  105;  Cyprus,  Lead- 
ership of  Paul,  106;  Perga, 
Mark's  Desertion,  109;  An- 
tioch in  Pisidia,  Specimen  of 
Paul's  Preaching,  110;  Iconi- 
um,  Division  Among  the  Gen- 
tiles; Lystra.  the  Fickle  Pop- 
ulace. 117;  Derbe,  End  of 
Tour.  119;  Strengthening  the 
Churches,  119;  Issue  Raised 
by  Judaizere.  121;  Appeal  to 
Jerusalem.  124;  First  Public 
Meeting  in  Jerusalem.  127; 
Paul's  Stand  for  Gentile  Lib- 
erty. 128;  Victory  over  the 
Judaizers.  130;  Reception  of 
the  Victory  at  Antioch,  134; 
Peter's  Temporary  Defection 
and  Rebuke  by  Paul  at  An- 
tioch, 134;  Controversy  with 
Judaizers  Reopened,  137; 
Break  with  Barnabas,  139; 
New  Campaign  with  Silas, 
142;  Lystra,  Finding  of  Tim- 
othy; Lives  up  to  Jerusalem 
Agreement,  142;  Hedged  in 
by  the  Spirit  of  Jesus,  143; 
Macedonian  Call  and  Luke, 
145;  Philippi,  Lydia  and  the 
Jailer,  148;  Thessalonica,  Ex- 
citable Populace,  153;  Ath- 
ens, Idolatry  and  Philosophy, 
157;  Corinth.  Sudden  Wealth 
and  False  Culture,  162;  First 
Epistles,  I  and  II  Thessaloni- 
ans,  166;  Return  to  Antioch, 
171;  Statesmanship  of  Paul, 
173;  Leaves  Antioch  Last 
Time,  177;  Three  Years  in 
Ephesus,  178;  Trouble  at 
Corinth.  I  Corinthians,  186; 
Suspense  in  Troas,  194;  Re- 
bound in  Macedonia,  II  Corin- 
thians, 194;  Triumph  in 
Corinth,  200;  Appeal  to  De- 
serting Galatians,  200;  His 
Gospel,  Epistle  to  Romans, 
205;  Gathering  Storm  at  Je- 
rusalem, 213;  Charge  of  the 
Judaizers,  220;  Plan  for 
Answering  the  Charge,  [223; 


INDEX 


331 


Paul — Continued 

Jews  from  Asia  Upset  the 
Plan.  225;  Defence  to  the 
Mob,  228;  Before  the  San- 
hedrin,  231;  Rescue  from 
the  Conspirators,  237;  Be- 
fore Felix,  240;  Before  Fes- 
tus,  246;  Before  Agrippa, 
249;  Going  to  Rome  at  Last, 
254;  Reception  at  Rome, 
266;  Effort  to  Win  the  Jews, 
268;  Delay  of  Paul's  Trial, 
269;  Love  of  the  Philippians 
for  Paul,  Epistle  to  the  Phi- 
lippians, 272;  Specimen  of 
Paul's  Work  in  Rome.  Epistle 
to  Philemon,  278;  New  Peril 
of  Gnosticism,  Epistle  to  the 
Colossians,  279;  General  Ap- 
peal to  the  Churches  of  Asia 
Epistle  to  Ephesians,  285; 
Outcome  of  the  Trial,  290; 
Visit  to  the  East,  292;  Visit 
to  Spain,  292;  Burning  of 
Rome,  293;  Return  East  for 
Last  Time,  294;  Concern  for 
Timothy,  I  Timothy,  295; 
Cause  in  Crete,  Epistle  to 
Titus,  299;  Arrest,  303;  New 
Charges,  304;  Close  Confine- 
ment, 305;  Desertion  of 
Friends,  306;  First  Stage  of 
the  Trial,  307;  Loneliness, 
309;  Last  Message  to  Timo- 
thy, 311;  Estimate  of  His 
Own  Career.  312;  Longs  for 
Jesus,  313;  Condemnation, 
315;  Death,  316;  Backward 
Look,  317. 

Pelagius 3 

Peter. 3,  81,  93,  94,  128  ff.,  134,  187 

Pfleiderer 66,  68, 71 

Pharisaism 26,  32,  67  ff.,  121  ff. 

Pharisee 1,  7, 17  ff. 

Philemon 278  ff. 

Phmp 217 

Philo 13 

Phoebe 175 

Plummer. 196 

Poppaea 291 

PrScUla 163. 175. 180, 207. 306 

Pudens 307 

Ramsay 1,  2.  5,  8,  10,  12, 

72.  73,  74,  87,  111,  112,  116,  119, 
141,  143,  145,  158,  159.  164,  165, 
177,  189,  192,  193,  198,  202,  214, 
216,  235,  246,  255,  256,  257,  258, 
259,  260,  262,  263,  266.  267,  272 

Renan 06 


Resch 88 

Robertson 170, 183 

Robinson 286 

Ruegg 88 

Sabatier 70,  71,  76,  137.  170, 

176,  177.  188,  190,  197.  206,  209 

Sadducee 234 

Sanday 66,  67,  75,  88.  89 

Sanhedrin 33  ff.,  231  ff. 

Saul  (See  Paul). 

Schseder 88 

Schmiedel 44, 196 

Secundus 175 

Seneca 73.  271  ff. 

Sergius  Paulus 108 

Shakespeare,  Charles 159 

Shammai 13 

Silas 132f..  141ff. 

Smith. .  .256,  257,  258,  259,  260,  262 

Sopater 175 

Sosthenes 165,  175 

Souter 193 

Spitta 291 

Stade 76 

Stalker, 
39,  62,  109,  162,  287,  290,  293,  306 

Steck 65 

Stephen 18,  23f .,  26,  27,  29,  30 

Stoic 2 

Stoicism 271,  272 

Strauss 65 

Sturm 76 

Tacitus 241 

Tertius 208 

Tertullus 241 

Thackeray 60 

Timothy 9,  118,  141  f., 

.     175,  179,  183,  198,  295  ff.,  309  ff. 

Tit-US 75 

Titus, 

129,  175,  193  ff.,  198,  299  ff.,  306 

Trophimus 75,  225,  295 

Turner 10 

Tychicus 175,  280,  306 

Tyrannus 175 

Van  Manen. ." 3 

Walker,  Dawson 196 

Warfield 88 

Weizsacker 65 

Wellhausen 87 

Westcott 286 

Wisdom  of  Solomon 72 

Wrede 87 

Zenas 300 

Zeno 168  f. 


INDEX   TO   NEW  TESTAMENT 
PASSAGES 


Matthew 

3:17 28 

23 199 

28:  19f 122 

28  :  20 40 

Mark 

6:3 11 

Luke 

1  :  1-4 112,255 

3:  If 10 

24:34 41 

John 

1:46 12 

4:6 149 

10:  16 122 

11:  16 219 

14-17 216 

18:8 29 

18:31 34 

Acts 

1:1 236 

2 91 

2-5 75 

4 100 

4:36f 100 

6 100 

5:34 17 

6:35-39 17 

5:41 30 

6 217 

6:1-6 30 

6:9 24 

6:  11 .17,221 

6:  13 226 

6:14 27 

7:9 10 

7:48 27 

7  :  52 27 

7:57 17 

8 217.281 

8:1 28 

8:3 31 

9 76 


9:  1 32,35,36 

9:4 39,42,45,46 

9:4-6 42 

9:5 47 

9:6 47 

9:7 42 

9:8 51 

9:12 54 

9:  15  f 53,56 

9:16 57 

9:  17 54,55 

9:20 61 

9:21 60 

9:22 61 

9:23-25 78 

9:26 80 

9:27 81 

9  :  31 62 

10:28 134 

11:2 95,122 

ll:2f 94 

11  :  3 121,134,136 

11:12 94 

11:18 94 

11:19 94 

11:20 94 

11  :  22 96 

11:24 96 

11  :  29 101 

11:30 101.214 

12:  1 101 

12:  17 102 

12:  25 102 

13 91 

13  :  1 103 

13:2f 60 

13:3 104 

13:4 105 

13:5 107 

13:  15 112 

13:  17-22 113 

13:  23 113 

13:  24f 113 

13  :  26 113 

13:  27-29 113 

13:30f 112 

13:30-37 113 

13:  32 113 

13:33 112 

13:34 113 

13:38 114 

13:39 114 

333 


13:44 153 

13:45 115 

13:46 115 

13:48f 116 

13:  51 116 

14:  1 117 

14:  2-4 117 

14:6 117 

14:  15-17 114,118 

14:  18 118 

14:  21 119 

14:  22 119 

14  :  26 119 

14:  27 120 

15 78,199 

15:  1 123 

15  :  2 125 

15:3 125,127 

15:4 127 

15:5 122,127 

15:  7 130 

15:  7-11 131 

15:  10  f 137.  222 

15:  12 131 

15  :  14-21 131 

15:  19 131 

15:22 58,132 

15:  24 132 

15:  25 132 

15:  28 132,133 

15:  30-35 134 

15:  38 109 

15:  39 140 

*15:40 141 

16:  2 142 

16:4 142,224 

16:5 143 

16:6....110,  111,  143 

16:7 60 

16:9 146 

16  :  10 147 

16:  12 149 

16:  17 149 

16:  18 160 

16:  24 305 

16:37 162 

17  :  1-10 156 

17:  2f 153 

17:7 154,304 

17:  11 166 

17:  13 166 

17:  14 156 


334 


INDEX 


Acta — Coatinued 

17:  16 157,158 

17:  17 158 

17:18f 2 

17:  19f 160 

17  :  21 159 

17:  22-31 114,161 

17:28 22 

17:  33 161 

18:  2 163 

18:3 163 

18:5 157,164 

18:  6 164 

18:  7 164 

18:9f 165 

18:  11 165 

18:  18...  165, 171,224 

18:  19f 172 

18:  21 172 

18:  22 172 

18:  23 110,177 

18:  27 180 

18:  28 5,180 

19:  1 178,201 

19:6 181 

19:8 178 

19:9 225 

19:  10...  178, 179,279 

19  :  11-20 182 

19:13-15 66 

19:  14 107 

19:  21  f 178, 

183,    184,    209,    213 
19  :  22, 

173, 184, 193,  208 
19  :  26 178 

19  :  27 185 

19:33 225,307 

20  :  1 186 

20:  2 200,228 

20  :  4  f 214 

20:5 147 

20:6 205 

20:  7 215 

20  :  9-12 215 

20  :  16 216 

20:  17-35 179,216 

20:19 19 

20:  22f 216 

20:  25 216 

20:  29  f 279,  297 

20:  31 178 

21  :  1 256 

21  :  2 217 

21  :  4 217 

21  :  8 217 

21  :  11 217 

21  :  12-14 217 

21  :  17 220 

21  :  20 222,223 

21  :  20ff 135 

21  :  21 221 

21  :  22 223 

21  :24 223,312 

21  :  25 224 

21:26 171,224 

21:27 225 


21:28.... 

226 

26:2-23... 

116 

21  :  29.... 

...214,225 

26:4 

15 

21  :  32. . . . 

227 

26  :  4  f 

252 

21  :  36.... 

227 

26:5 

15 

21:37.... 

228 

26:6-11... 

252 

21  :  39.... 

12 

228 

26  :  9 

25 

21  :  40  f.. . 

26  :  10, 

22 

77 

11,25,31 

32,33,34 

22:2 

21 

26:  11 

31 

22  :  3 

...7,16,17 

26  :  12 

36 

22:3-5... 

....63.229 

26:  12-18.. 

252 

22:3-21.. 

115 

26:  13 

42 

22:5 

. ...  18. 229 

26  :  14-18, 

22  :  6-16. . 

229 

42, 46, 49, 66 

22  :  7-10. . 

42 

26 :  16 

57 

22:8 

47 

26:  16-18.. 

47 

22:9 

42 

26:  18 

57 

22  :  10. . . . 

47,48 

26:  19 

48 

22:  11.... 

51 

26:  19-23.. 

252 

22  :  12. . . . 

54 

26  :  20 

.60,63.83 

22:  13 

55 

26  :  28 

253 

22  :  16. . . . 

55 

26:32 

253 

22  :  17-21 . 

229 

27 

264 

22:  21.... 

.59,83.230 

27:  1 

245 

22:  24.... 

231 

27:  1-5.... 

256 

22  :  27 

231 

27:  2 

256 

22:  28.... 

8 

27:3 

255 

23:  1 

232 

27:5 

256 

23:3 

233 

27:  6-8.... 

256 

23:  5 

233 

27:9 

257 

23:  6...  7,  68,  233,  234 

27  :  10 

259 

23  :  9  f.. . . 

235 

27:  11 

259 

23:  11.... 

237 

27  :  12 

259 

23  :  12. . . . 

238 

27:  14 

259 

23  :  15. . . . 

238 

27  :  16 

267 

23  :  16. . . . 

9 

27  :  18 

261 

23:  18.... 

238 

27:  21 

261 

23:29.... 

239 

27:  24 

261 

23  :  30. . . . 

240 

27:  27 

261 

24:  1 

241 

27  :  30 

263 

24:6 

242 

27:34 

263 

24:9 

242 

27:38 

256 

24  :  10. . . . 

243 

27:42 

264 

24  :  10-21 . 

115 

28  :  1  f 

264 

24:  11.... 

243 

28:  11 

265 

24:  16 

15 

28:  14 

266 

24  :  18 

244 

28  :  16 

266 

24  :  22 

246 

28:  17 

268 

24:  24 

245 

28:  17-28.. 

115 

24:  25.... 

245 

28:  28 

269 

24  :  26 

245 

28  :  30 

267 

24  :  27 

240 

28:  30f 

269 

25 

77 

25  :  2 

25:  7 

247 

247 

Romans 

25:8 

248 

251:9 

248 

1  :  1 

210 

25  :  10 

249 

1:  10 

205 

25:  11.... 

220 

1  :  12f 

206 

25:  12.... 

249 

1:  13 

209 

25  :  16. . . . 

250 

1  :  14 

206 

25  :  18  f.. . 

248 

1:  15 

210 

25:  19.... 

260 

1:  16 

211 

25:23.... 

251 

1  :  17 

211 

25:25.... 

248 

2 

211 

25:26.... 

251 

2:  16 

210 

26  :  2  f.. . . 

251 

2:  21-31... 

211 

INDEX 


Romans — Continued 

3  :  1-20 211 

3  :  20 222 

4 212 

6 212 

6 212 

7 277 

7  :  1-6 212 

7:7 17 

7:  7-25 212 

7:9 26 

8 212 

8  :  16 74 

fr-11 212,269.287 

9:  1-5 228 

9:  2f 6,174 

9:4f 7 

9:31 68 

11:24 14 

12-15 212 

13:  1-7 299 

14  and  16 133,209 

14  :  17 124 

14:48 223 

15  and  16 211 

15:  14f 211 

15:  15f 206 

15:  18 211 

15  :  19 200 

15:  20 200,206 

16:  22-25 205 

15  :  22-31 202 

15:  23 209 

15:  24-28 184 

16:  26 206 

15  :  26 213 

15:  26-28 205 

15:  27 214 

15  :  28 174 

13:31 213 

16 206 

16:  1 206 

16:4 207 

16:  6 207 

16:6 207 

16:  14 208 

16:  21 208 

16:  22 208 

16:  23 208 

16:26 210 

I   COBINTHIANa 

1-4 199 

1  :  11 188 

1  :  12ff 186 

1:  14 208 

1:20 162 

l:23f 162 

2:2 161 

2:4 170 

3:4f 186 

3:11 89 

3:  22 187,188 

4:11 60 

4:  17 183,191 

4:18 183 


4  :  18-21 188 

4  :  21 188 

6:4f 195 

5:7 184,224 

6:9 167 

6:  11 188 

6:9 192 

7:1 189 

7:8 33 

8-10 133,  210 

9:  1 42,59 

9:2 59 

9:6 140 

9:  7-18 275 

9:16 59 

9:  20-22 175 

9:24f 13 

10:4 13 

10:  14-22 133 

11:23-25 89 

12:1 189 

13:33 22 

15  :  1 189 

16:3-8 89 

16:5-7 41 

16:8 41,52 

15:9 26 

15  :  32 176,184 

16:  1 213 

16:  1  f 173 

16:  3f 213 

16:  5f 183 

16:8 178,183,184 

16:  10 188,191 

16:  12 187 

16:  17 189 

16:  19 171 

II   COBINTHIANS 

1-7 ...198,199 

1-9 196 

1:1 184,198 

1:3-2:  13...  191,  197 

1  :9 192.316 

1  :  16 188 

1  :  16 183 

1  :  17flf 183 

1  :  23 189 

2:1 189 

2:  1-4 192,196 

2:  6-11 192,196 

2:6-16 192 

2:6 196 

2:7 192 

2:9 196,197 

2:  12 194 

2:  13 196 

2:  14 194 

2:  14-7:  4 196 

2:  14-7:  16 197 

3:1 137, 180, 197 

3:6 17 

4  and  6 198 

4:3f 4 

4:  6 48,50 

4:7 4 


4:8-11 194 

5:  1-10 277 

6:8 315 

5:12 69 

6:  13 176 

6:  14 176 

5:16 3 

6:17 56 

6:18 59 

6  :  20 59 

7:5 196 

7:8 195 

7:  11 196 

7:  12 196 

7:  13 196,199 

8  and  9 198 

8:  16-24 193,198 

8:  18 193 

8:  21 213 

9:2 173 

10-13.... 196, 198, 199 

10:  6 314 

10:  10 4,5 

11:5 60 

11  :7f 276 

11  :  13f 175 

11  :  22 6,197 

11:23-33 67 

11:25 6 

11  :  26 174 

11  :29 173 

11  :  32 36,79 

12:2 11,85 

12:2-6 66 

12:4 4 

12:7 5 

12:9 186 

12  :  10 176 

12:  11 2.187,197 

12:  12 60.199 

12:  13f 276 

12:  14 188 

12  :  17 213 

12  :  20 200 

12:  21 189 

13  :  1 188,  200 

13.:  2 199 

13:  10 199.200 

Galatians 

land  2.... 68.  66.  205 

1:1 59 

1:2 110 

1:6 202 

1  :  6-10 210 

1:7 203 

1:8 204 

1:11 59 

1:12 60 

1:  13 29.36 

1:  14 1.19 

1:16 16 

1  :  16.  ...69,60,76,77 

1  :  17  f 77.80 

1  :  18 11,81 

1:  19 lOX 


336 


INDEX 


Galatiansr-Conhntied 

PmUPPIANS 

4:  13... 

279 

1  :  21.... 

78,141 

1  :  1 

..274 

,277 

4:  14... 
4:  15... 

. 147, 274, 280 

1  :  21-24. 

84 

167.  279 

1:23.... 

78 

1:5 

276 

4:  16... 

.179,280,285 

2 

78,199 

1:  10 

19 

4:  18. .. 

274,281 

2:  1 

....102,299 

1  :  12-14. . 

275 

2:  If.... 

102 

105, 125, 128 

1  :  13 

267 
6 

I  The 

2:2 

1:  15 

2:  3 

199 

1:  15f.... 

..209 

,275 

l:7f... 

156 

2:4 

129 

1:21 

...92 

,277 

2:3f... 

155 

2:5 

121 

1  :  21-24. . 

277 

2:5 

155 

2:6f.... 

55 

1:23 

..277  313 

2:  15  f.. 

154 

2  :  6-10. . 

58.128 

1:25 

..274 

,290 

3:  1.... 

157 

2:  9...  57, 91, 129,  280 

2 

274 

3:6.... 

164 

2:9-13.. 

213 

2:  1-11... 

277 

3:8.... 

164 

2:  10.... 

214 

2:  19-21.. 

274 

4:  11... 

155 

2:  11.... 

91 

2:  24 

274 

6:2.... 

155 

2:  11-21. 

58,134 

2:25 

276 

2:  12.... 

131 

2  :  30 

276 

II  Thbssalonians 

2:  14.... 

136 

3 

274 

2:  15-21. 

136 

3:  1-16... 

277 

2:2.... 

. 155, 167, 170 

2:20.... 

92,314 

3:4-9.... 

56 

2  :  3-10. 

23 

3  and  4.. 

205 

3:  5 

6 

2:8.... 

170 

3:  1 

203 

3:8 



19 

2:9.... 

170 

3:  13.... 

37 

3:  10 



67 

2:  13... 

170 

3:  16.... 

13 

3:  12 

51 

2:14... 

170 

3:  17.... 

77 

3:  13 

277 

2:  15... 

170 

4:9 

.20,202,204 

3:  18 

275 

3:4.... 

170 

4:  10.... 

223 

4:2 

277 

3:6.... 

170 

4:  11.... 

203 

4:3 

..277 

,292 

3  :  10. . . 

155,170 

4:  13.... 

145, 147,  201 

4:  5 

277 

3:  12... 

170 

4:  14  f... 

145 

4:8f 

277 

3:  14... 

170 

4:  15.... 

6,203 

4  :  11-13. . 

276 

3:  17... 

167 

4:  19.... 

204 

4:  15 

275 

4:  20.... 

5 

4:  16 

4:  17 

..164 

,276 
276 

I  I 

4:21.... 

20 

4:24.... 

13,  77 

4:  18 

276 

1:2.... 

142,  200 

5  and  6. . 

205 

4:  19 

276 

1:3... 

. 179, 295,  296 

5:  1 

204 

203 

4  :  22.... 267,  272 

.275 

1:4 

6, 297 

5:3f.... 

1  :  12-17 

298 

5:  13.... 

204 

CoiiOSSIANS 

1  :  13... 

25,29 

6:  11.... 

204 

1  :  16... 

26 

6  :  13 

203 

315 

1:6 

289 
279 

1:  18... 
2:1 

298 

6:  14.... 

1:7 

305 

6:  17.... 

....204,316 

1:9 

179 

2:  If... 

290,299 

1!:  15-17. . 

283 

2:7 

60 

Ephesians 

1:18 

284 

4:7f... 

14 

1-3 

287 

1  :  19 

283 

4:  12... 

. . 14,  297,  298 

1  :  1 

285 

1:20 

283 

4:  13... 

298 

1  :3-14.. 

287 

1:22 

283 

4:  14  f.. 

298 

1  :  15-23. 

287 

2:2f 

284 

6:  11... 

298 

1  :  22  f... 

285 

2:6 

2:9 

283 
283 

6  :  20. . . 

298 

2 

287 

2  :  4-6. . . 

58 

2  :  13-16. . 

284 

II  Timothy 

2:  12.... 

286 

2:  18 

284 

2:  15.... 

286 

2:  19 

284 

1:3.... 

9 

2:  16.... 

286 

2:20-23.. 

284 

1:5.... 

9.311 

2:  19.... 

286 

3:  1 

314 

1:6 

311 

2:21.... 

286 

3:  1-17... 

285 

1:7.... 

311 

3:8 

...58,92,93 

3:  11 

288 

1  :  10... 

313 

3:  14-21. 

287 

4:3 

289 

1  :  11... 

60,313 

4  :  21 ... . 

91 

4:  7-9.... 

274 

1  :  12... 

61,313 

5  :  22-33. 

288 

4:8f 

280 

1  :  16... 

305.306 

6 :  10-20. 

288 

4  :  10 141.274 

,280 

2 

311 

6:  19  f... 

289 

4:  10-14.. 

274 

2:  15... 

311 

6  '  20 

272 

274 

4  :  10-17. . 

285 
279 

2:  19... 
3:  10  f.. 

312 

6:21.... 

4:  12 



312 

INDEX 


337 


II  Timothy— Continued 

3:  11 147 

4:2 312 

4:  5 296,312 

4:6fF 303.313 

4:8 314 

4:9 309 

4:  10.  ...300.306.307 

4:  11 141.309,310 

4:  12. 

295,  297,  306,  309 

4:  13 2,295.309 

4:  14 307 

4:  15 308 

4  :  16 308 

4:  17 308,309 

4:  18 314 

4:  20 295,303 

4  :  21 307,309 

Titus 

1:4 300 

1  :  5 295,300 

1:  10 300.301 

1 :  12 22 


1  :  13 301 

1  :  14 301 

1  :  16 301 

3:  1 301,305 

3:8 301 

3:  9f 301 

3  :  12 300 

3:  13 300 

3:  15 300 

Philemon 

1 274,279 

2 279 

9 278 

10 274,279 

11 279 

12 278 

16 278 

17 279 

18  f 278 

21 279 

22 274,290 

23  £ 279 

24 141 


Hebrews 

13:  23 310,315 

13:  24 266 

James 

2:2 132 

4:  16 294 

5:  14f 265 

I  Peter 

1:1 286 

1  :  If 175 

2:4 286 

5:  13. 141,280 

II  Peter 

1:1 131 

3:15 91 

Revelation 

1:  11 179 


EPOCHS  IN  THE  LIFE 
OF  JESUS 

A.  T.  ROBERTSON.  D.D. 

13mo,  $1.00  net 

"  These  lectures  are  refreshing  in  their 
simplicity  and  freedom  from  technicalities 
or  cant  expressions." — Congregationalist. 

*'The  career  of  our  Lord  is  sketched 
with  a  bold,  strong  hand,  and  the  crises  in 
his  public  ministry  are  brought  before 
the  reader  by  masterly  word-painting  that 
reminds  one  of  the  work  of  Michael 
Angelo  with  chisel  and  brush." 

— Review  and  Expositor. 

''One  of  those  rare  books  that  treat  a 
most  exalted  subject  simply,  yet  master- 
fully."—  Westminster  Teacher. 

"A  strong  evangelical  position  is  taken, 
and  the  book  is  a  worthy  contribution  to 
its  class  of  literature." — Religious  Telescope. 


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